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ANTHROPOMETRY 


BY 
ALES HRDLICKA 


Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U. 8. National Museum 


PUBLISHED BY 


THE WISTAR INSTITUTE OF ANATOMY AND BIOLOGY 
PHILADELPHIA 


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CONTENTS 
RIES Ne etek Uae wicca a dies Gini Pa winped ettec ale wen a 
EI SEC EGRC IES Lo orig 0 ay 2o 2 sha une A use Ga wale tO © ces HERE A Gd 
SMITE CELUECIONT EIN Ls cg coos x. pac d Pr rc ed ie aie Dts Rs wn Ue Se hia HN Ms 


PRELIMINARIES: 
RRM AE co, re a oat natn g Wiens e AMM eo ny Sew ota bee 
EE eM PEA CEO 0 0 Stay li oe a aes Me ae ee tare « wile. ¥en 
UPON A TE ERR RRR hey Ser Se ge eae abe ak din ea arity Grades & «d's howe 
nearer PHS PT EN NUMER IER Fe erie Ne a eed a tot ko Rali L aw 6 als 
MU ATRL ISRD aL ST APTOS DER t yt Pars i a) oh ok, Se ve. so8 Ps lose Oe Soa te 
Ne SETI Gr at a ea heigl cw eee Geis MME ek PAE alee dgle ee BS 
(LSC Fa Wy VE Ball See cn a a a Ce Re ea a 
Oumar ee Fig emCTS VERMIN eg hee a yctase ahd pie beetle in ack ages wee 
IRIE TEOER GLC IUIETIOON Gee ya ae nc/s 5 4s 0 aba ss koe eb cke & cosa pow ba hs 
Deer ED RRM ION as Die wk wes, aia SLE eae a bao 
Mee IAP LVR NT) CASGUMAKING: |. 6s ss occ cl sits vs ede Sa wih hares Sel 
oe WYLIE ap a SpE) SoS dnl et ee Ce a me oan ca me 


ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE LIVING: 
mR RRA T EE hee oe ie ee yea ere Si ess sh, ARV wR SU we whe 5 gee 
PPM INMORs VP ARUHEMONTS 2 cridus, dicies shia fae ae od bla s os AOE ees 
PaNDMAREKS, BUANKS AND METHODS. i o..03 500 04 246 Ga as Hale oo dee Sans 
Pear as OF) THE) BODY. a. oi. w Foie ns siecle nc dee pes nae ane ghee 
POMP YS OP OTHE LIDAD, oo heh dee bins ck oe eine win eeu tis sa vaneless 
MN TROOP THE PACH. yee ek Ve ele dew be Ue da rges Gad Wal ole le 
MEASUREMENTS OF THE Nosk, MouTH AND HARS.................-5. 
MEASUREMENTS OF THE TRUNK AND LIMBS...............00000 ee eeee 
eM PECAN TC Yiy TH Ty LT VING chote oo ec da a Soe diace ss 5. a rato ss Cee nie ale 
Berra AT A BEME VATIONS |... oo boc es bos as Coke fad ee wee Mens 


ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE SKELETAL PARTS: 
7 OSA the rath ab ase ae aan agai as Ot rene Pe yy a 


ERE OT ee no een Fn ae ay News I ee ht Ne ee SS ee ee 
a Se tage aS ah Ae Sia de 9 80 cath Agi) Na aces Me eg ec 


Vi CONTENTS 

OSTEOMETRY (continued): 
MeASUREMENTS OF ‘THETH .. ccc. ccs sn ote uo cs 4s ale eee 143 
MEASUREMENTS (OF) BRAIN oc. 55s sere bs op ole na « wic.din wche n eoe te 144 
INTHRNAL (ORGANS) Oo 5 eb nu ee aks ule eee o aeie bee's alee ene 146 
PLASTER CASTS 6.5.65 oss do os elete OS wees We dacs onc hs iene nee 146 
ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICES. 4 62 ccs ous cscs ss ele us Se 149 

INDEX fre ow io a ea Ps ee eee 155 

ILLUSTRATIONS: 
Fig. 1, AURICULO-BREGMATIC HEIGHT........-....+....s00w eee 15 
Fig. 2. BI-MASTOIDHAL DIAMETER. .... ...0.2552600004 50 0s a 16 
¥iq. 3. NABALHHEIGHT, yi oes elies wes oe ple ele oat ee iv 
Wig. 4.) PALATE) sa) 5 beets Sie cas wb ed brew Dn 0 ae eee 17 
Frias. -5.& 6. (GOWER JAW. 6 o55< 5 wel ced wey Soles 20 
Fria. 7. NASAL’ SEPTUM. ¢ soc vc-cv vac a'y © o yeu han dipee ete 22 
Fiq.-8. -PALPEBRAL FISSURE. |. 0.000 i:0.0 o's aes verse ao oe we 22 
Fra? 0.0) aR ec 5 5-5 cris wend oe wacee ain Wale hore 5 bas Reece ee ea 24 
Fria. 10. ANTHROPOLOGICAL COMPASSES. . J. .......«.% 5500 See 56 
Fia. 11. METHOD OF MEASURING LENGTH OF HEAD..............-0-: 69 
Fig. 12. M&rTHOD OF MBASURING BREADTH OF HEAD...............-. 70 
Fig. 18. METHOD OF MEASURING HEIGHT OF HEAD.............---0-- 71 
Fig. 14. MErsop OF MEASURING EAR........-...:s+ «s+ ene ee 75 
Fiq@. 15. Mrraop OF MEASURING HAND: ../..-..,---+ 4.020 78 
Fig. 16. METHOD OF MEASURING FOOT... ......4.-.+.-:es 0000 eee 80 
Fig. 17. APPARATUS FOR MEASURING CRANIAL CAPACITY............-. 110 
Fig. 18. OSTEOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS; SKULL RING..............+.+0-. 119 
Fia. 19. TyYpicaAL SHAPES OF LONG BONES, LOWER EXTREMITY......... 122 
Fia. 20. TyPicAL SHAPES OF LONG BONES, UPPER EXTREMITY......... 124 


ANTHROPOMETRY 


ALES HRDLICKA 


INTRODUCTION 


Defimtion: Anthropometry may perhaps be most simply and com- 
prehensively defined as the conyentional art or system of measuring 
the human body and its parts. The systems of measuring the skull 
and the skeleton are known separately as craniometry and osteometry, 
but these terms are frequently merged with that of anthropometry; 
thus we speak only of anthropometric instruments, anthropometric 
methods , anthropometric laboratories. 

Object: The object of anthropometry is to supplement visual ob- 
servation, which is always more or less limited and uncertain, by ac- 
curate mechanical determinations. The ideal function of anthropom- 
etry would be the complete elimination of personal bias, and the 
furnishing of absolutely correct data on such dimensions of the body, 
organs, or skeleton, as might be of importance to those who are to 
use the measurements. This ideal is not attainable to a perfection, 
but it is the highest duty for every worker to strive for as close ap- 
proach to it as may be in his power. 

Diversity: Anthropometry in general is not and may never be one 
uniform system. It is a handmaid to various classes of workers who 
have different objects in view, and measurements that are indispens- 
able to one may be of no concern to another. 

Measurements of the body were begun and are used by the artisan, 
and by the artist, the object of the one being a proper ‘‘fit’’ and that 
of the other a correct or artistically superior production. They were 
ona are employed in recruiting armies, with the aim of eliminating 
the inferiors. They are used to some extent by medical men and 
‘dentists, to assist them in reaching diagnosis or tracing improvement 
in their patients. They enter largely into the modern systems of col- 
lege and other gymnastics, and lately also into those of the popular 
baby studies. Certain measurements play important réle in crimino- 
logical and medico-legal identification. Finally, we have measure- 
ments that have become invaluable aids to scientific research in physi- 
ology, anatomy and especially anthropology. 

7 


8 ALES HRDLICGKA 


To summarize, measurements on the human body or its parts are 

practiced for: 

. Industrial purposes; 

. Regulation of art; 

. Military selection; 

. Medical, surgical, and dental purposes; 

. Detection of bodily defects and their correction in gymnastics; 
. Criminal and other identification; 

. Eugenic purposes; and for 

. Scientific investigation. 

As a result of the multiple applications of body measurements, there 
have become differentiated, aside from the industrial and artistic 
systems which are of little interest to us in this connection, the mili- 
tary, criminological, and also clinical and eugenic anthropometry, 
besides that used for strictly scientific research and more particularly 
for anthropological purposes. As to the last named, were it not for 
the seeming alliteration of the two words, the term Anthropological 
anthropometry would be of real utility. 

The diversity of measurements in the various above named branches 
of activities is a legitimate necessity. Regrettably, this diversity ex- 
tends also more or less to instruments and methods, which makes a 
free interutilization of the obtained data difficult if not impossible. 
There is a great loss of effort, and even the most closely related of the 
above branches remain more or less strangers to each other. One 
of the foremost aims of all those interested in anthropometry in the 
broader sense should be a general unification of instruments and meth- 
ods, as far as this may be practicable. 

Anthropology: The present treatise is devoted to measurements used 
in anthropology. ‘The aim of anthropological measurements is not to 
replace, but supplement visual and other observations, or give them 
more precision. 

Variety of Measurements: There are none except natural limits to 
the number or variety of measurements that can be legitimately prac-’ 
ticed on the human body or its remains. Moreover, every measure- 
ment or set of such, if carefully secured on sufficient numbers of indi- 
viduals representing different human groups, will be of some value. 
But some of the measurements were early seen to be of greater gen- 
eral interest or importance than others, came into universal use, were 
properly regulated, and constitute to-day the anthropological sys- 
TEM OF ANTHROPOMETRY. This system, however, though rigid in 


CON OD OF WD KE 


ANTHROPOMETRY 9 


essentials, has no definite limits, and is subject to such changes as may 
in the course of time be found advisable. 

In the development of the system it was soon found that diversity 
of method was very prejudicial to progress, which led to attempts at 
regulation of the methods and instruments by schools, by national, 
and finally by international agreements. Unfortunately, the earlier 
agreements conflicted, in consequence of which a great deal of work 
was lost. Up to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the system of Broca 
or the French school was almost universal; after the war, however, the 
rapidly growing tendency in Germany for individualism did not spare 
anthropometry. In 1874 the first proposals in this direction were 
made by Prof. Ihering to the Congress of the German anthropological 
societies. In 1877 a Craniometric Conference was held on this sub- 
ject at Munich, and still another took place in 1880 in Berlin. The 
outcome of the deliberations at these conferences was a scheme drawn 
up by Professors Kollman, Ranke, and Virchow, which was submitted 
for consideration to the 18th General Congress of the German Anthro- 
pological Society, held at Frankfort-on-Main in 1882. The scheme 
was adopted and designated as the “Frankfort Agreement.”’! It intro- 
duced new nomenclature and other modifications, with unfortunate 
results. Henceforth there were the “ French School” and the “ Ger- 
man School” of anthropometry. But the new system did not pre- 
vail and the need of an international unification of methods began to 
be felt. 

One of the first attempts at an international unification of anthro- 
pometric measurements was made in the early 90’sin Paris, by Dr. 
R. Collignon.? The effort was made in connection with certain an- 
thropometric studies planned by him at that time, and consisted in 
his sending to various anthropologists of prominence in as well as out- 
side of France certain propositions, with a request for their critique 
and opinion. The effort, while favored in France, remained that of 
an individual, and led to nothing definite. 

A much more promising, yet in the end quite as fruitless effort for 
unification of anthropometric methods was made at the occasion of 
the Twelfth International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and 
Archeology, held in August of 1892, at Moscow. ‘Two commissions 

1 Garson, J.G. The Frankfort Craniometric Agreement, with Critical Remarks 
thereon. J. Anthrop. Inst. Gr. Brit. & Ire., 1885, xiv, 64-83. 

2Collignon, R. Project d’entente internationale au sujet des recherches anthro- 


pométriques dans les conseils de revision. Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, 1892, x11, 
186-8. 


10 ALES HRDLICKA 


were appointed for the purpose (see p. 6), but they accomplished 
nothing substantial. The interest in the subject was however well 
aroused by this time, and the anthropologists meeting in 1906 with 
the XIIIth International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and 
Archeology in Monaco, undertook seriously and in a large measure 
successfully the formation of an International Agreement on Anthro- 
pometry. The work thus auspiciously begun was continued by the 
anthropologists meeting with the XI Vth Congress, in 1912, at Geneva. 
The task thus undertaken is not yet finished; but what has been done 
furnishes a sound and large nucleus for further developments. At the 
occasion of the XVIIIth International Congress of Americanists, at 
London, in 1912, foundations were laid for the formation of an inter- 
national association of anthropologists,! and one of the essential 
features of such an association must be a permanent International 
Anthropometric Board, which will deal with all questions relating 
to the harmonization of anthropometric methods, instruments, and 
procedures. 

The results in anthropometric unification thus far attained are em- 
bodied in two reports, published originally in French in 1906, and in 
the French, English and German in 1912. As these agreements are 
of fundamental importance to every worker in physical anthropology, 
and as they are not as readily available as desirable, they will be here 
republished. In translating the French report of 1906 there were 
found a number of points which needed a few words of explanation 
and this report, therefore, is annotated. 


THE INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT FOR THE UNIFI- 
CATION OF CRANIOMETRIC AND CEPHALO- 
METRIC MEASUREMENTS 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSION APPOINTED BY THE XIII INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS 
OF PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY, AT MONACO, 
1906 


By Dr. G. PapiLtuaAuLT, REPORTER OF THE COMMISSION 
Translated from Dr. Papillault’s report in L’Anthropologie, 1906, XVII, 559-572, by A. H. 
On the motion of MM. Hamy, Papillault and Verneau, the Organ- 
izing Committee of the XIIIth International Congress of Prehistoric 


1See Marett, R.R. Report of an International Conference, etc. Proc. XVIIIth 
Intern. Cong. Amer., London, 1913, 1, LX XXVI. 


ANTHROPOMETRY EL 


Anthropology and Archeology had included among the questions a 
consideration of which by the members of the Congress was regarded 
as of the greatest importance, the subject of unification of anthropo- 
logical measurements. 

At the opening session of the Congress, which took place at Monaco 
on the 16th day of April, 1906, Professor Hamy, as President, called 
attention to the urgent need of an international agreement on anthro- 
pometric technique. But he also called attention to the almost in- 
surmountable difficulties which would be met with if the numerous 
measurements which had been employed to date were to be examined 
in the open session of the Congress, and to the consequent necessity, 
if satisfactory results were to be obtained, of appointing a Commission 
which would specially occupy itself with the subject during the time 
of the session. and at the last meeting of the Congress present some 
project of unification for approval by the Congress. 

This proposition was adopted, and the commission was named imme- 
diately, comprising the following: 

Giuffrida-Ruggert, Secretary of the Anthropological Society and As- 
sistant to the Chair of Anthropology, Rome; 

Hamy, Professor of Anthropology at the Museum of Natural His- 
tory, and member of the Institute, Paris; 

Hervé, Professor of Ethnology at the Ecole d’Anthropologie, and 
former President of the Anthropological Society, Paris; 

Lissauer, President of the Anthropological Society, Berlin; 

von Luschan, Professor of Anthropology, University of Berlin; 

Papillault, Assistant Director in the Laboratory of Anthropology of 
the Ecole des Hautes-Etudes, and Professor at the Ecole d’Anthro- 
pologie, Paris; 

Pittard, Private Docent at the University of Geneva; 

Pozzi, one of the Professors of the Faculty of Medicine and former 
president of the Anthropological Society, Paris; 

Sergi, Professor of Anthropology and Director of the Anthropolog- 
ical Institute, Rome; 

Verneau, Assistant to the Chair of Anthropology, at the Museum of 
Natural History and Temporary Professor at the Ecole d’Anthropol- 
ogie, Paris; and 

Waldeyer, Professor of Anatomy, and permanent Secretary of the 
Academy of Sciences, Berlin. 

The Commission met immediately after its nomination to elect its 
officers and arrange the program of its activities. Professor Waldeyer 


12 ALES HRDLICKA 


was chosen President, Professor Sergi Vice-President, and Dr. Papill- 
ault Secretary and Reporter. 

Dr. Papillault read a letter which he had received from M. Chantre, 
in reply to the demand which he [Dr. Papillault] had made for his 
[M. Chantre’s] report on the efforts for the unification of anthropolog- 
ical measurements undertaken by the International Congress of An- 
thropology of Moscow. ‘The main part read as follows: 

‘“‘T have been, in fact, charged with such a report at the Congress of 
Moscow for the Congress of Paris. But as the quest on [of unification 
of anthropological measurements] had not been made a part of the 
regular program at the Moscow meeting, Professor Virchow, Chairman 
of the International Commission of Craniometry, in accord with some 
of our colleagues, asked that the said report should not be presented 
until at the following [Paris] session.” 

In M. Chantre’s report on anthropology at the Moscow congress, 
we read that two Commissions were named for the purpose of unify- 
ing anthropological measurements. ‘They were: 

1. The Anthropometric Commission, appointed following a commu- 
nication by M. Zograff on “‘Anthropometric Methods as Practiced in 
Russia, and on the Necessity of Forming an International Agreement 
for Anthropometric Research.”” This commission was to “endeavor 
to unify as far as possible the methods of anthropometric observa- 
tions,’’ and to report at the next session. It was composed of MM. 
Anoutchine, Bogdanoff, Chantre, Kollman, Malieff, Sergi, Tikhom- 
iroff, Virchow, and Zograff. M. Bogdanoff was elected its President 
and M. Zograff the Secretary and Reporter. The headquarters of the 
commission were with the Imperial Society of Natural Sciences and 
Anthropology of Moscow. 

2. The Craniometric Commission. On the motion of Professor Koll- 
man of Basle the Congress named also a commission to revise the Con- 
vention of Frankfort, with the object of securing for anthropology an 
international system of craniometric measurements. This commis- 
sion consisted of MM. Anoutchine, Bogdanoff, Chantre, Kollman, 
Malieff, Sergi, Virchow, and Zograff. Professor Virchow was elected 
its President, Professor Anoutchine its Secretary-Reporter. 

The letter from M. Chantre shows further that neither of these 
commissions has reached any appreciable results. The Anthropo- 
metric Commission, it seems, has never met; while the Craniometric 
Commission held only two meetings during the session of Moscow, 
without reaching any ageement. 


ANTHROPOMETRY ts 


M. Papillault insists on the necessity of the present Commission 
meeting at least twice a day during the entire session, in order to sub- 
ject the various techniques actually employed in anthropometry to a 
serious revision and to reach an agreement. The matter is urgent. 
The Frankfort agreement has been abandoned by most of the German 
scientists themselves, and the French method is no longer uniform. 
At Paris the disciples of Broca retain perhaps the illusion of still fol- 
lowing a uniform technique, but a little inquiry shows divergencies 
which render all comparison of the results of some of their measurements 
quite incorrect. The school of every country presents probably diver- 
gencies of method among its different members which equal and even 
exceed those that separate it from other schools. This simple state- 
ment should banish from our debates all motives that may be foreign 
to science. None of us would endeavor to defend a national tradition 
which has proved incapable of preserving a unity of doctrine, and such 
a tradition in fact exists no more. In its selection of a technique the 
commission should be guided solely by fitness, simplicity, precision, 
and the biological value of the various measurements. 

On the motion of Professor Waldeyer the commission decided to 
limit its activities to the measurements of the head [and skull] which 
are so numerous as to claim all the time that might be at the disposal 
of the Commission. Every measurement which has gained even a 
limited usage, together with the principal variations in its technique, 
should be submitted by the Secretary for revision to the Commission. 
In every case where an agreement will be reached, the Secretary shall 
edit the definition and technique of the measurement in question be- 
tween the sessions of the Commission, and submit the text for the 
approval of the latter. 

The Commission terminated its work Saturday, April 21, and the 
Secretary announced to the Congress that the report was ready in a 
neighboring room where it could be freely consulted. At the same 
time he offered to give the members of the Congress whatever explan- 
ations might be found necessary. At the end of this day’s session, 
the report in its final form was presented to the Congress by the Presi- 
dent, and received a unanimous approval. It here follows: 


PROJECT OF AN INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT ON CRANIOMETRIC AND CEPHALO- 
METRIC MEASUREMENTS 


Preliminary remarks: The Commission classed as optional certain 
measurements which appear interesting, but concerning which the 


14 ALES HRDLICKA 


Commission does not possess sufficient details which would permit it 
to fully gauge their importance and advise their regular employment. 
In cases of this nature the Commission has contented itself with a 
statement concerning the technique of the respective measurements, 
without giving advice as to their use. 

In connection with each measurement is given an indication as to 
the instrument which should be employed. The abbreviations are as 
follows: 

c.g.—compas glissiére, the sliding compass; 

c.e.—compas d’épaisseur, the spreading compass; 

m.t.—metric tape. This should be made of decidedly pliant mate- 
rial, but without possessing in the least degree the quality of stretching. 
Slightly starched cloth is of the best; and frequent testing of the tape 
by a metal standard is indispensable. 


I. CRANIOMETRY 
A. THE SKULL 


1. Maximum length of the skull or greatest antero-posterior diameter; c.e. 
This is the maximum glabello-occipital diameter of the vault.! 
Landmarks: Anteriorly—the most prominent point of the glabella; 

posteriorly—the most prominent point on the occiput as shown by 

the maximum determinable spread of the branches of the compass. 


2. The Iniac antero-posterior diameter (optional); c.e. 

Taken in the sagittal and median plane of the vault. 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the most prominent point of the glabella; 
posteriorly—the inion, the individual peculiarities of which should be 
discounted.? 


3. The maximum breadth of the vault, or the greatest transverse diameter; 
C.€. 

This is the greatest horizontal and transverse diameter which can 
be found on the vault by the spreading compass. 

Landmarks: Determined solely by the maximum breadth of the 
skull above the supra-mastoid and zygomatic crests. 

{1 The French text reads: ‘‘C’est le plus grand diamétre dans le plan sagittal et 
médian du crane.” This definition is somewhat erroneous, for it seems to direct 
that the measurement be taken to a point in the median line of the skull, while a 
little further on this point is defined as “‘le point le plus saillant du sus-occipital donné 
par le maximum d’écartement des branches du compas.” As a matter of fact the 
point of maximum distance from the glabella is seldom strictly in the median line 
of the occipital, even in absolutely normal specimens. The correct definition should 
read as given above. A. H. 

' 2 “dont les variétés individuelles devront étre évitées.”’ 


ANTHROPOMETRY 15 


4. Heights of the vault: 

(a) The basilo-bregmatic height; c.e. 

Landmarks: Inferiorly—the basion, or median point of the anterior 
border of the foramen magnum (avoiding the exostoses that are some- 


wheres gh a atteadtaaae ay 





times found at this place); superiorly—the bregma, or median point 
of the coronal suture. 

(b) Auriculo-bregmatic height (H, fig. 1). 

This is the distance between the bregma and a line connecting the 
superior borders of the auditory meatus. 

Landmarks: Inferiorly—the point where the imaginary line uniting 
the superior borders of the two meatus auditorius intersects the median 
part of the skull; superiorly—the bregma. 

5. The smallest frontal breadth or minimum frontal diameter, c.g. 

This is the shortest horizontal diameter between the two temporal 
crests on the frontal bone. 

6. The maximum frontal breadth or maximum frontal diameter; c.g. 

This is the largest horizontal diameter of the frontal squama (the 
bistephanic diameter of Broca is abandoned). 

7. Maximum bimastoideal diameter (m.m. fig. 2); c.e. 

Landmarks: The external surface of each mastoid process at the 
level of the center of the meatus auditorius. At this level search with 
the spreading compass for the maximum diameter. 

8. The maximum bizygomatic diameter; c.g. 

Landmarks: The most widely separated points on the external sur- 
face of the zygomatic arches. The object is to find the greatest diam- 
eter. 

1See p. 64. 


16 ALES HRDLICKA 








¢ 
! 
4 
4 


9. The naso-basilar diameter; c.e. 
Landmarks: Anteriorly—the nasion, or median point of the naso- 
frontal suture; posteriorly—the basion. 


10. The basio-alveolar diameter; c.g. 
Landmarks: Anteriorly—the alveolar point, or median point of the 
anterior border of the alveolar arch; posteriorly—the basion. 


11. The nasion-menton diameter; c.g. 

Landmarks: Above—the nasion; below—the inferior border of the 
lower jaw, in the median plane. 

The mandibula to be in place, the jaws brought in apposition, the 
condition of the teeth [in relation to wear, especially] to be noted. 


12. The naso-alveolar diameter ;* c.g. 
Landmarks: Superiorly—the nasion; inferiorly—the lowest point 
of the alveolar border between the two median upper incisors. 


13. Nasal height; c.g. (N E fig. 3). 

Landmarks: Superiorly—the nasion; inferiorly the middle of a line 
connecting the lowest points of the two nasal fossae. 

If instead of the border there is a gutter, measure to the level of 
the floor of the nasal fossae [7. e., to the upper limiting line of the 
gutters]. 


’ The facial index is expressed by the following formula: 


Naso-alveolar diameter * 100 
maximum bizygomatic diameter 


ANTHROPOMETRY 17 


14. Breadth of the nasal cavity; c.g. 

Landmarks: 'The lateral borders of the nasal aperture. Find with 
the compass the greatest diameter of the aperture in horizontal line. 
15. Inter-orbital breadth; c.g. 

Landmarks: Bilaterally—the point where the posterior lacrymal 
crest meets the inferior border of the frontal. 

16. Orbital breadth. 

Landmarks: Mesially—the dacryon, or point of meeting of the su- 
tures formed by the frontal, the lacrymal, and the ascending part of 
the superior maxillary bones; 

(If the dacryon is obliterated, or in an abnormal situation, take the 
point where the posterior lacrymal crest meets the inferior broder of 
the frontal) ; 

Distally—the external border of the orbit, at the point where the 
transverse axis of the orbit meets the border, and parallel as far as 
possible to the superior and inferior borders. 

17. Orbital height; c.g. 

Landmarks: The superior and inferior borders of the orbit, avoid- 
ing the superior and inferior notches, when they exist. Take the max- 
imum distance between the two borders along an axis perpendicular 
to the preceding measurement [orbital breadth]. 


as 
a 
Ee 





Fia. 4 


18. (a) Breadth of the upper alveolar border; c.g. 
Landmarks: The external surface of the alveolar border, on each 
side. 
2 


18 ALES HRDLICKA 


If there are any exostoses on the border they are to be avoided by 
placing the points of the instrument above the same. ‘The measure- 
ment to be taken is the maximum transverse separation of the alveolar 
borders. ; 

(b) Length of the alveolar arch; c.g. (F, fig. 4). 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the anterior surface of the alveolar border 
between the two median incisors; posteriorly—the middle of a trans- 
verse line connecting the posterior extremities of the alveolar border. 

[This transverse line is obtained easily by placing a wire as deep as 
possible on each side in the notch which separates the alveolar border 
from the pterygoid process.|* 


19. The bony palate: c.g. (optional). 

(a) Length of the palate (L, fig. 4). 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the median point of a line tangent to the 
posterior alveolar border of the median incisors; posteriorly—the me- 
dian point of a transverse line connecting the most anterior points of 
the notches in the posterior border of the palate. 

(b) Breadth of the palate. 

Distance between the [internal] alveolar borders between the sec- 
ond molars. 


20. Orbito-alveolar height; c.g. (optional). 
The minimum distance between the lower border of the orbit and 
the alveolar border. 


21. Foramen magnum; c.g. 

(a) Length. 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the basion; posteriorly—the opisthion, or 
median point of the posterior border. 

(b) Breadth. 

Landmarks: Points of maximum separation, in transverse line, of 
the lateral borders of the foramen. 


22. Sagittal arc of the vault; m.t. 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the nasion; posteriorly—the opisthion. 

Intermediary: Apply tape to the surface of the vault along the sag- 
ittal line. 

The arc is divisible into three principal parts which should be re- 
corded separately and which correspond to the three bones composing 
the vault, namely the frontal, parietal and occipital. 

¢ The maxillo-alveolar index will be: 


Maximum breadth of the alveolar border X 100 
Length of the alveolar arch 


ANTHROPOMETRY 19 


[This subdivision is not seldom vitiated by the presence of inter- 
callated bones, especially at lambda.] 


23. Transverse arc; m.t. 

Landmarks: Measure from the most prominent point on each zygo- 
matic crest, directly above the meatus; the tape to be applied trans- 
versely over the vault in such a way that it will pass over the bregma 
and connect the two preceding points. 

(b) Circumference, or Horizontal Arc; m.t. 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—above the supraorbital ridges; posteriorly 
—over the upper portion of the occipital, so as to obtain the maximum 
measurement; care necessary that the level of the tape is the same on 
both sides. 


24. Capacity. 

Without making a selection from the different methods and while 
recognizing the value of the method of Broca, the commission advises 
that there should always be at hand standards or skulls of control, of 
considerably differing capacities, with which the exactness of the in- 
dividual procedure should be verified; the commission also advises, 
however, the utilization as far as it may be possible of the direct meas- 
urement of cranial capacity by water with a rubber bag or con- 
tainer. 

B. LOWER JAW 


25. Bicondylar breadth; c.g. 
Landmarks: The most external points on each condyle; the separ- 
ation of these points constitutes the measurement. 


26. The bigoniac breadth; c.g. 

Landmarks: The gonions, or points of the angles formed by the as- 
cending branches with the body of the lower jaw. 

The separation of the angles is measured by applying the compass 
to their external surface. 


27. Length [i. e., height] of the ascending branch; c.g. 

Landmarks: Superiorly—the uppermost point of the condyle;5 in- 
feriorly—the gonion; but as frequently it is very difficult to determine 
this point, it is best to take the intersection of the lines prolonging the 
inferior and posterior borders of the bone. 

’ The French original says ‘‘bord superieur du condyle,” which doubtless means 


the transverse ridge of the condyle on which the uppermost point is generally 
located. See illustration. 


20 ALES HRDLIGKA 


The measurement is obtained by permitting the lower jaw to rest 
on its inferior border, and placing the rod of the sliding compass along 
the posterior border. 





Fria. 5 


28. Breadth of the ascending ramus; c.g. 

(a) Minimum breadth (m, fig. 6): The minimum distance between 
the anterior and posterior borders of the ramus. 

(b) Maximum breadth (M, fig. 6) (optional). 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the most prominent point on the anterior 
border of the coronoid process; posteriorly—the farthest point on the 
posterior border of the bone.® 

The measurement is obtained by applying one of the branches of 
the sliding compass tangently to the posterior border of the lower 
jaw, and bringing the other branch in contact with the anterior border 
of the coronoid process. 


29. Height of the symphysis; c.g. 

Landmarks: In the median plane: superiorly—the highest point of 
the alveolar border [bet. the median incisors]; inferiorly—the inferior 
border of the symphysis. 

Measure the actual distance between the two points, not in pro- 
jection. 

30. Height of the body of the lower jaw; c.g. 


The same technique, but the measurement is taken in a vertical 
plane, between the first and the second molars. 


6 Really, as well seen from the illustration, the line connecting the most posterior 
point of the condyle and the point of the angle of the jaw. Tr. 


ANTHROPOMETRY Pl 


31. Maximum thickness of the body of the lower jaw (optional). 
The maximum separation of the internal and external surfaces of 
the bone in the plane between the first and second molars. 


32. Mandibular angle. 

The angle between the posterior and inferior borders of the bone. 
To be measured by Broca’s goniométre and according to the tech- 
nique advised by that author. 


II, CEPHALOMETRY 


1. Maximum length of the head, or the maximum antero-posterior di- 
ameter;’ c.e. 
The same technique to be followed as on the skull; do not press.® 
2. The maximum breadth of the head or maximum lateral diameter; c.e. 
Same technique as on the skull. 


3. Height of the head (head erect). Instrument: The anthropometric 
square. 

Landmarks: Superiorly—the vertex; inferiorly—the superior bor- 
der of the auditory opening, which ordinarily corresponds (but the 
point should always be verified) to the parts of the notch between the 
tragus and helix.® 


4. The minimum frontal breadth; c.e. 
Same technique as on the skull. 


5. Maximum bimastoidal diameter; c.e. 
Same technique as on the skull, the observer standing behind the 
subject. 


6. Maximum bizygomatic diameter; c.e. 

Same technique as on the skull. The maximum should be searched 
for with care, for it is often located more posteriorly than one would 
expect. 


7. Bigoniac diameter; c.e. 
Same technique as on the skeleton. The fleshy parts of the mas- 
seters are to be avoided. 


7In all measurements on the living taken with the spreading compass it is in- 
dispensable to search for the greatest spread of the branches, then fix the latter in 

their position with the screw and replace them over adjoining parts to verify if 
the spread has really been maximum. [If proper care be taken the awkward fix- 
ation of the branches by the screw is not necessary. T7'r.] 

8 A moderate amount of pressure is of course necessary; the instruction is di- 
rected against hard pressure. T'r. 

9 The height from the middle of the line connecting the floor of the external audi- 
tory canals, to bregma is now more in vogue. Seep. 64. Tr. 


22 ALES HRDLICKA 


8. Height of he face, total; c.g. (optional).! 

Landmarks: In median plane, superiorly—the hair line; inferiorly 
—the inferior border of the lower jaw. A slight pressure is to be used, 
to discount the soft parts. 


9. Menton-nasion diameter; c.g. 

Same technique as on the skull, and using slight pressure, as with 
preceding measurement. 

Look for the nasion by passing the nail along the ridge of the nose 
until it encounters a slight ridge which is formed by the inferior 
border of the frontal [or the depression of the nasion itself]. 


10. The naso-buccal diameter; c.g. 
Landmarks in the median plane: Superiorly—the nasion; inferiorly 
—the line between the lips. 


11. The naso-alveolar diameter; c.g. 
Same technique as on the skull. It is always easily possible to turn 
the lips up so that the free border of the gums can be seen. 


12. Height of the nose; c.g. 
Landmarks: Superiorly—the nasion; inferiorly—the nasal septum 
where it joins the upper lip. Do not press. 





Fia. 7 Fia. 8 


13. Breadth of the nose; c.g. 
Landmarks: The external surface of the alae of the nose. The max- 
imum breadth to be determined without the exertion of any pressure. 


14. Prominence of the nose at its base [7. e., length or height of the sep- 
tum] (fig. 7). 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the most prominent part of the point of 
the nose; posteriorly—the point where the septum is intersected by a 
transverse line joining the deepest points of the two naso-labial fur- 
rows. | 

10 Can be more readily taken with the spreading compass. Tr. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 2a 


To take this distance the two landmarks should be well exposed [by 
bending the head well backward]; use instrument appropriate for the 
purpose. 


15. External bipalpebral breadth; c.g. (E, fig. 8). 

Landmarks: The external angle of each palpebral fissure, deeply, 
where the lines touch the eyeball. 

With the eyes of the subject wide open and the visual axis fixed 
slightly above the horizon, the two points are approached by the 
branches of the compass supported on the cheeks of the subject. 


16. The internal palpebral breadth; c. g. UJ, fig. 8). 
Landmarks: The internal angle of each eye, without regard to the 
caruncula. 


17. Breadth of the mouth; c.g. : 

Landmarks: The commissures of the lips [angles of the mouth], at 
the point where the mucous membrane joins the skin. The distance 
to be taken while the mouth is in its medium position [1. e., naturally 
closed without tension]. 


18. Bilabial height; c.g. 

Landmarks: Superiorly—the uppermost points on the curves of the 
are of the upper lip; inferiorly—the lowermost point on the curve of 
the lower lip. 

The rod of the compass should be held vertically, its branches tan- 
gent to the summits of the curves. 


19. The ear. 

(a) Length, maximum; c.g. (fig. 9, line designated). 

Landmarks: Superiorly—the highest point on the border of the 
helix; inferiorly—the lowermost point on the lobule. 

The rod of the compass should be held parallel to the long axis of 
the ear with its branches tangent to the points indicated; use no pres- 
sure. 

(b) Length of the cartilaginous ear (fig. 8, interrupted line). 

Landmarks: Above—as with preceding; below—the inferior border 
is the cartilaginous concha. 

The compass is to be applied as in the preceding measurement, but 
the lobule is slightly pressed backward with the lower branch of the 
instrument, in order to include no more than the cartilaginous part. 


11 Measurement of the left ear is to be preferred as much more handy than that 
fo the right. Tr. 


24 ALES HRDLICKA 





Fia. 9 


(c) Breadth. 

Distance between two lines parallel to the long axis of the ear, one 
of these lines being tangent to the anterior, the other to the posterior 
border of the helix. 

The above outlined technique of each of the measurements was, after 
a discussion, unanimously adopted. 

(Signed) 

President, WALDEYER. Vice President, G. Smrat. 

Members of the Commission: GiurrripaA Rueceri; E. T. Hamy; G. Hervé; Lis- 
SAUER; VoN LuscHAN; PiTTarRD; Pozz1; VERNEAU. 

G. PapiILLAULt, Reporter. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 25 


THE INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT FOR THE UNIFI- 
CATION OF ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS 
TO BE MADE ON THE LIVING SUBJECT 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSION APPOINTED BY THE XIVTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS 
OF PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY AT GENEVA 
(1912), To SUPPLEMENT THE WorRK COMMENCED BY THE 
XIlIta ConGress IN THE SEssion aT Monaco 
(1906) 


ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THE OFFICIAL VERSION! 
W. L. H. DUCKWORTH, M.D., Sc.D. 


(One of the three recorders appointed by the Commission) 


CoNTENTS 

PAGE 
perme irra Emme SEL EOCILECULON at alorg a's Gay va Sul bea @ ooo alee w 0 te ate ebook ch ole 61 
Pree PEM CTOLCTIAN ISTITIOLIES oe cs cute fu os bp ha oa So ho wae wo ieee Oey ae bake 62 

Section III. Detailed definitions of the measurements approved by the Com- 
PMaOT EO UAeL ONUTONS a3 ¢ cur cercioiee aa oro ek tee ble a vole 63 

Section IV. Additional resolutions passed by the Commission and the Con- 
SUE eta etre ra Sta tics ate a hd cha hae at eho a. oko a a's 0: ohare 67 


Tue INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT FOR THE UNIFICATION OF ANTHROPOMETRIC 
MEASUREMENTS TO BE MADE ON THE LIVING SUBJECT 


I, INTRODUCTION 


During the International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and 
Archeo'ogy, held at Geneva from the 9th to the 12th September, 1912, 
an International Commission was appointed in order to determine the 
unification of anthropological measurements to be made on the living 
subject. The meetings had thus as their object, that of supplementing 
the work accomplished during the Congress held at Monaco in 1906, 
when the unification of craniometric and cephalometric measurements 
was achieved.” 

The Commission which met at Geneva included the following mem- 
bers of the Congress: 


1 The Anthropplogical Laboratory of the University, New Museums, Cambridge. 
Oct. 30, 1912. 

2 International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology, Session 
x11, Monaco, 1906, Tome 11, pp. 377-394. 


26 ALES HRDLICKA 


Messrs. CHANTRE (France). 
CzEKANOWSKI (Russia). 
DuckwortH (Great Britain). 
FRASSETTO (Italy). 
GIUFFRIDA-RuGGERI (Italy). 
GopIN (France). 
HILLEBRAND (Hungary). 
Hoyos Sarnz (Spain). 
Hrpuicxa (United States). 
Lot (Russian Poland). 
von LuscHaANn (Germany). 
MacCurpy (United States). 
MANOUVRIER (France). 
Marett (Great Britain). 
Mayet (France). 

Moca (Italy). 

Muscrove (Great Britain). 
PirTaRD (Switzerland). 

Rivet (France). 
SCHLAGINHAUFEN (Switzerland). 
G. Srrai (Italy). 

Soutuas (Great Britain). 
Voukov (Russia). 

WEISGERBER (France). 


The Commission sat on four occasions, as follows: 
Sep. 11. 8 a.m. to mid-day. President: Professor Manouvrier. 
Sep. 18. 8 a.m. to1la.m. 


3p.m.to 4p.m. 
Sep. 14. 9a.m. to 10a. m. President: Dr. Duckworth. 


President: Professor G. Sergi. 


Messrs. Duckworth, Rivet and Schlaginhaufen were appointed re- 
corders of the proceedings, and were instructed to prepare the report 
of the Commission. 

The full report of the recorders was adopted unanimously by the 
Commission at the meeting on Sep. 14, and also by the Congress at 
the concluding meeting on the same day. 


II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 


(a) The erect position is adopted as that which the living subject 
shall assume for the purposes of measurement. 


ANTHROPOMETRY Zi 


(b) The method of projection is adopted in all cases save those in 
which special mention is made of a different method. 

(c) For ‘paired’? measurements, the left side is recommended; but 
measurements of both the right and left sides are to be made in the 
two cases following: 

height of the acromion 
height of the great trochanter 

(d) Observers are requested to indicate in every case, with precision, 
their method and the instruments employed. 

(e) Those persons desirous of undertaking anthropometric work are 
very particularly urged to obtain preliminary practical instruction in 
a laboratory, and not to be content with a merely theoretical study of 
the various methods and processes of mensuration. 


\ above the ground. 


III. DETAILED DEFINITIONS OF THE MEASUREMENTS APPROVED BY THE COMMISSION 
AND THE CONGRESS 


1. Stature: The subject stands erect on a horizontal and resisting 
plane surface (hereafter spoken of as “‘the ground”’): no support is 
to be given by a vertical plane: the upper limbs are pendant, the palms 
of the hands turned inwards, and the fingers pointed vertically down- 
wards, the heels in contact, and the axis of vision horizontal. The 
height of the vertex above the ground is to be measured in this position. 

2. **Auditory canal: anatomical landmark (point de repére) the bot- 
tom of the notch between the tragus and the helix. (This point had 
been adopted previously at the Monaco Congress: cf. op. cit. p. 391.) 

3. *Chin: anatomical landmark: the inferior border of the mandible 
in the median plane. 

4. *Supra-sternal notch: anatomical landmark: the deepest point in 
the hollow of the notch. 

5. *Mammilla or Nipple: anatomical landmark: the center of the 
nipple. This measurement is not applicable to women with pendant 
breasts. 

6. *Umbilicus or Navel: anatomical landmark: the center of the 
umbilical cicatrix. 

7. *Pubes: anatomical landmark: the upper border of the symphy- 
sis pubis in the middle line. Where this point is impalpable, guidance 


3 Measurements preceded by an asterisk, thus *, are those in which the subject 
retains the position already indicated for the measurement of the stature. [In 
making the measurements 2-8 and 10-18 inclusive the height of the “‘anatomical 
landmark”’ above the ground is to be determined. W. L. H. D.] 


28 ALES HRDLICKA 


as to its position is given by the cutaneous fold of the lower part of 
the abdomen in this situation. 

8. *Spinous process of the 5th lumbar vertebra: to ascertain this ana- 
tomical landmark with exactitude, the subject shall be caused to bend 
forwards from the hips, when the spinous process of the 5th lumbar 
vertebra will become prominent. 

9. Sitting height: the subject sits on a horizontal and resisting seat 
about 30 to 40 ctm. high (this height being proportionate to the sta- 
ture of the subject): the knees are flexed: the dorsal aspect of the trunk 
is to make contact with a vertical plane, or with the anthropometric 
rod at two points, viz. in the sacral region and again between the 
shoulder-blades. The axis of vision is horizontal, as in No. 1 (supra). 
The height of the vertex above the surface of the seat is to be measured. 

10. Pelvic height: the subject retains the position adopted for the 
sitting height (No. 9). The height of the summit of the iliac crest 
above the surface of the seat is to be measured. 

11. *Acromion: anatomical landmark: superior and external border 
of the acromion process. 

12. *Great Trochanter: anatomical landmark: upper border of the 
great trochanter. 

13. *Antertor superior iliac spine: anatomical landmark: the sum- 
mit of the anterior superior spine of the ilium. In cases of difficulty, 
the point is found by tracing Poupart’s ligament to its iliac termi- 
nation which defines the point precisely. 

14. *Hlbow: anatomical landmark: the radio-humeral articulation. 

15. *Wrist: anatomical landmark: the tip of the styloid process of the 
radius. 

16. *Tip of the middle finger. 

17. *Knee: anatomical landmark: upper border and edge of the 
inner tuberosity of the head of the tibia. 

18. *Ankle: anatomical landmark: tip of the internal malleolus. 

19. Span: the subject is placed against a wall, the arms extended 
horizontally, the palms of the hands directed forwards. Measure the 
distance between the tips of the middle fingers of the two hands. 

If a wall is not available, the rigid anthropometric rod is to be placed 
behind the subject, who assumes the position described in the pre- 
ceding paragraph. ‘The same measurement is to be made. 

In either case, the maximum span of the subject is to be recorded. 

20. *Bi-acromial diameter: maximum distance between the two acro- 
mial points (cf. No. 11). 


ANTHROPOMETRY 29 


21. *Bi-humeral diameter: maximum distance between the two prom- 
inences formed by the deltoid muscles. Secondary measurement.! 

22. *Bi-mammuillary diameter: distance between the two nipple- 
points (cf. note appended to No. 5). Secondary measurement. 

23. *Bi-cristal diameter: maximum distance between the external 
margins of the iliac crests. In making this measurement, the observer 
is to direct the arms of the sliding compass obliquely downwards, and 
from before backwards. 

24. *Bi-spinal diameter: measured between the two anterior superior 
iliac spines (cf. No. 13 supra). 

25. *Bi-trochanteric diameter: maximum distance between the ex- 
ternal surfaces of the great trochanters. In making this measurement 
the superficial tissues are to be strongly compressed. 

26. *External conjugate (antero-posterior) diameter of the pelvis: ana- 
tomical landmarks: in front, the superior margin of the symphysis 
pubis in the middle line: posteriorly, the tip of the spinous process of 
the fifth lumbar vertebra. 

27.5 *Transverse diameter of the thorax (No. 1). This measurement 
is to be made in the horizontal plane at the level of the base of the ensi- 
form cartilage. The observer is to record the mean of the measure- 
ments taken at the extremes of inspiration and of expiration respect- 
ively: alternatively, the measurement may be made in the intermediate 
stage as regards those two phases of respiration. 

28. *Transverse diameter of the thorax (No. 2). This measurement 
is to be made in the horizontal plane at the level of the upper border 
of the fourth chondro-sternal articulation. The same observation (as 
to the phases of respiration) applied here as to No. 27 g.v. Secondary 
measurement. 

29. *Antero-posterior diameter of the thorax (No.1). This measure- 
ment is to be made in the same horizontal plane as is defined in the 
case of the transverse diameter of the thorax No. 1 (cf. No. 27). The 
same observation (as to the phases of respiration) applies to this 
measurement as to No. 27 q.v. 

30. *Antero-posterior diameter of the thorax (No. 2). This measure- 
ment is to be made in the same plane as is defined in the case of 
the transverse diameter of the thorax No. 2 (cf. No. 28). The same 


4 A certain number of measurements are thus described in accordance with the 
instructions of the Commission. 

5 In making measurements Nos. 27 to 30 inclusive, care is to be taken that the 
extremities of the calliper-arms are wide, since with the ordinary pointed arms there 
is a danger of error owing to the points slipping on to an intercostal space. 


30 ALES HRDLICKA 


observation (as regards the phases of respiration) applies to this meas- 
urement as to No. 27 q.v. Secondary measurement. 

31. *Sternal height: measured with sliding callipers: from the supra- 
sternal notch (cf. No. 4 supra) in its deepest part, to the base of the 
ensiform cartilage. 

32. Bi-condylar diameter of the humerus. Secondary measurement. 

33. Br-styloid diameter of the fore-arm. Secondary measurement. 

34. Bi-condylar diameter of the femur. Secondary measurement. 

35. Bi-malleolar diameter. Secondary measurement. 

36. *Thoracic circumference: this circumference is to be measured in 
the horizontal plane, passing through the base of the ensiform carti- 
lage. The same observation applies here as to No. 27. Secondary 
measurement. 

37. Circumference of the neck. Secondary measurement. 

38. Circumference of the upper arm. The maximum circumference 
obtained below the insertion of the deltoid muscle, the arm being held 
in the position of rest. 

39. Circumference of the upper arm with the biceps muscle in the 
contracted state. Proceed as in the case of No. 38. Secondary meas- 
urement. 

40. Maximum circumference of the fore-arm. ‘This measurement is 
to be made in the region of the epitrochlear and epicondylar muscles 
and extensors, 7. €., immediately below the joint-level. 

41. Minimum circumference of the fore-arm. This measurement is 
to be made above the level of the styloid processes of the radius and 
ulna. 

42. Maximum circumference of the thigh. ‘This measurement is to 
be made at the level of the gluteal fold. 

43. Minimum circumference of the thigh: measured above the level 
of the knee-joint. 

44. Circumference of the calf of the leg: the maximum value. 

45. Minimum circumference of the leg. This measurement is to be 
made above the level of the malleoli. 

46. Minimum circumference of the waist. This measurement is to 
be made at the level of the most constricted portion of the abdomen. 

47. Contour of the hand. The right hand is applied to a sheet of 
paper, the fingers being very slightly separated, and the axis of the 
middle-finger forming a prolongation of that of the fore-arm. The 
two ends of the bi-styloid line are to be marked by pencil dots. Start- 
ing from these points the contour of the palm and fingers is to be traced 





ANTHROPOMETRY 31 


with a pencil split longitudinally and held vertically. Special dots are 
to be added, marking (a) the extreme ends of the interdigital clefts, 
and (b) on each side, the position of the metacarpo-phalangeal articu- 
lations. 

48. Contour of the foot. The right foot rests on a sheet of paper, the 
leg being perpendicular to the plane of this surface. Draw four short 
lines to mark the positions of the ends of the malleoli, and of the meta- 
tarso-phalangeal articulation of each side. Then the contour of the 
foot is to be traced in the same way as described for the hand (cf. No. 
47). The extreme end of each interdigital cleft is to be marked by a 
dot. It is useless to trace the inner border of the foot between the 
malleolar point and the metatarso-phalangeal point, for this part of 
the tracing is always unreliable. 

49. Height of the plantar arch. The foot being placed in the posi- 
tion requisite for tracing its contour (cf. No. 48), the vertical distance 
is to be measured between the plane of support and the upper border 
of the navicular bone. Secondary measurement. 


IV. 


The Commission and the Congress also adopted unanimously the 
following proposal and resolutions: 

(a) For the reconstruction of the stature from observations on the long 
bones of the skeleton. 

For the reconstruction of the stature with the aid of the long bones, 
the maximum length shall be measured in all cases save in those of the 
femur which is -to be measured in the oblique position, and the tibia 
which is also to be measured in the oblique position, the spine being 
excluded. 

(b) The Commission wishes to state that it is desirable that in the 
graphic representation of cranial forms, either the plane of Broca or of 
the Frankfort Agreement should be employed by anthropologists. 

(c) The Commission holds that it is desirable that anthropologists 
should append complete lists of measurements to their publications. 

(Signed) W. L. H. DUCKWORTH 


(One of the Recorders of the 
International Commission). 


32 ALES HRDLICKA 


PRELIMINARIES 
I 


Some day it may be possible to deal with the actual state of anthro- 
pometry in general, and with the many individual modifications of and 
tendencies in the same which are outside of international agreements; 
but what the American student of the branch needs most are 
simple, practical, well tested instructions for his guidance in work 
which is rapidly increasing. An active interest in the various lines of 
research which fall within the scope of physical anthropology is rising 
everywhere, as witnessed by the increasingly frequent calls at our 
laboratories from different parts of the country for instruments help 
and directions, by the number and calibre of our visitors, and in the 
unprecedented demand for trained anthropologists. 

These conditions were brought about partly by the war, which 
offered suddenly such great opportunities for applied as well as research 
anthropometry; partly by the intensification of the problems of 
immigration, Americanization, and conservation of child life, which 
are receiving a steadily increased attention; and partly by a gradually 
augmenting institutional demand for instruction and work in anthro- 
pology. These rapidly developing demands found anthropology un- 
prepared to give much material help. There were few available trained 
men and others could not be produced in a short time. There was no 
adequate supply of instruments, with curtailed or lost facilities for 
having these made. And there was nothing in English in the way of 
publications that would give the indispensable information as to 
methods, technique and other essential aspects of anthropometric 
procedure on modern lines. . 

The results of this state of affairs, aggravated by various complica- 
tions, were that anthropometric research in connection with the U. 8. 
Army has been a failure; that even the most important places in 
anthropology could not be filled; and that in the absence of something 
better a large amount of present anthropometric work on children and 
older subjects is carried on with the instruments and the methods of 
the gymnasia and physical culture establishments rather than those 
of classical anthropometry, with the consequence that practically all 


ANTHROPOMETRY 33 


this work is lost to science and even tends to create prejudice against — 
anthropometry in general. 

Evidently enough it is imperative for those who have the interests 
of physical anthropology in this country at heart to mend conditions as 
rapidly as may be possible, and one of the first and most urgently desir- 
able steps is to furnish legitimate, readily utilizable instructions in scien- 
tific anthropometry. It was with this end in view that the AMERICAN 
JOURNAL OF PHysicAL ANTHROPOLOGY published the International 
Agreements on Anthropometry, the most binding of all of our instruc- 
tions. But these alone are not sufficient. They are in certain respects 
incomplete and somewhat too curt. Moreover, they do not deal with 
descriptive characteristics and, while forming a necessary nucleus, are 
not all that the student wants and needs. Some good instructions in 
English for taking measurements and observations are to be found in 
the ‘‘ Notes and Queries on Anthropology” of the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science, but the subject there is not dealt with 
as much in detail as desirable. The American student in anthro- 
pology, and in growing measure also the American medical investi- 
gator, asks for a readily available, as simple as possible and yet 
sufficiently comprehensive, strictly modern, and thoroughly correct 
treatise on anthropometry. 

The question is how and how far these demands may be met under 
the present circumstances. Were American anthropologists more 
numerous, the best way would doubtless be for them to undertake the 
important task jointly and impersonally. As conditions are, however, 
it appears that the first steps must be individual; and in taking the 
same the author does so only because his extensive field as well as 
laboratory experience in this line gives hope that something service- 
able may be accomplished. His work has been based throughout 
on the methods of the Ecole d’Anthropologie in Paris and on the so 
far effected international agreements, with only such additions or 
modifications as experience on different races, classes, and ages of 
people and on their skeletal remains has shown to be necessary or 
advisable. 

The procedures, instruments, etc., to be here described, are those 
in regular use at the Division of Physical Anthropology, U.S. National 
Museum and in field work for the same. They are also, in the main, 
in use at Harvard and elsewhere, and form the basis of instruction 
given to the students who apply for that purpose at the National 
Museum. 


3 


34 ALES .HRDLICKA 


II 


Two of the main lessons taught by experience in anthropometry are, 
the need of precision, and the value of simplicity. Precision is a 
matter of proper well tested instruments, of good instruction, and of 
that something in the nature of the investigator, whether inherent or 
built up, which strives for accuracy and abhors looseness. Simplicity 
is the open road to advance. The road that is clogged by a multitude 
of unnecessary measurements and digressions leads generally to 
stagnation. 

It is self-evident that in a branch of research where so much depends 
on accurate measurements, the objects of first importance are the 
instruments. ‘The instruments should be accurate and not easily 
disordered; they should be in the highest degree well-balanced and 
“handy” or easy of manipulation, as well as of reading; they should 
be free from qualities that in the long run might in any way bias the 
determinations; and they should be easily transportable for field work. 
Finally their cost should not be prohibitive. 

Before the war we had such instruments. The best were those made 
on the original patterns of Broca, the father of anthropometry, or, 
with useful modifications, by Collin and Mathieu in Paris; but nice 
sets were also made in Switzerland. During and since the war the 
supply of French instruments has ceased, with the resumption un- 
certain, while the Swiss instruments have advanced considerably in 
price and are not readily obtainable. Also they retain the disadvan- 
tage of a small ‘“‘compas d’épaisseur,” one that does not permit the 
measurement of the height of the head which has become of much 
importance. The American instrument makers could not as yet be 
prevailed upon to undertake the manufacture of anthropometric 
instruments at reasonable price. We are therefore confronted with 
difficulties that cannot be readily surmounted. As a result anthro- 
pometric work has already been considerably interfered with in this 
country and on numerous occasions the instruments used are the less 
adapted and less accurate ones used for gymnastic or other purposes. 

With proper instruments, the next absolute necessity in scientific 
anthropometry is proper instruction. This point was strongly insisted 
upon during the conference of the International Committee on Unifica- 
tion of Anthropometric Procedures at Geneva (1912), and becomes 
more pressing as time goes on. A person who is a medical graduate, 
or is used to the manipulation of other instruments of precision, is 
not yet thereby fitted to practice anthropometry. He could con- 


ANTHROPOMETRY 35 


ceivably develop, by much reading and long practice, an efficient 
system of his own, but only with much loss of time and many errors. 
The work of self-instructed and insufficiently instructed observers has 
filled the earlier anthropological literature with reports in which no 
one is able to place full confidence, and such work has served to retard 
rather than favor progress, as well as to create much undeserved 
prejudice as to the value of anthropometry. 

Today a would-be anthropologist who is not known to have received 
competent instruction in the generally approved methods of the 
science, finds it hard to publish his results in professional periodicals 
and hard to have it accepted by first class institutions; his efforts, 
in fact, are often lost and he ends by becoming discouraged. 

Anthropometry deals with such a variety of conditions, and often 
with so small differences of proportions, that of necessity it must be 
reduced to a rigid system, which, while not beyond attainment from 
mere reading and practice, is much more readily and satisfactorily 
imparted to the student at a well-recognized anthropometric labora- 
tory. Such laboratories are now available in this country as well as 
in France and England, besides other countries. 

With proper instruments and proper instruction, and unyielding 
sense of honesty, the worker in anthropometry must develop a habit 
of minute care and accuracy, until these become automatic. Some 
students appear to be incapable of acquiring these habits in sufficiently 
effective form, and such students should give up anthropometry. Ina 
few the needed qualities are inborn and need only a direction; but in 
most they must be developed. It is fortunate that the most careful 
and accurate work brings the most pleasure, and is the best sustainer. 
The student who gets tired of measuring the human form or even the 
skeleton, is the one who has not been careful and accurate to the 
limit of his possibilities. 

Accuracy and endless care do not, of course, mean absolute perfec- 
tion—only its highest attainable degree. Our instruments will never 
be so accurate or senses so precise, and our subjects or specimens will 
never offer such forms, that an absolute precision may be obtained. 
Time and again the student on repeating a most carefully made meas- 
urement, will find a slight difference, an experience which at first 
may be discouraging. But with the careful and well trained observer 
such differences remain immaterial and never develop into unconscious 
bias in any direction, as they are very likely to do with the less well 
trained or less strict worker. 


36 ALES HRDLIGKA 


The first law of anthropometry being precision, the second is that of 
simplicity. | 

The goal of rational anthropometry is the greatest possible simplicity 
of procedure in measurements, in the treatment of data, in publica- 
tion. A profusion of measurements marks the beginner, the amateur, 
the absorbed impractical teacher. The experienced, clear-sighted 
observer will be seen to take only such measurements and observations © 
as will most help him to describe a given people, or bring out the 
salient points on a collection of specimens. He has two golden rules 
in this connection which he follows—first, to attempt no measurements 
on the living which can be more easily and accurately secured on the 
skeleton; and second, to include no more measurements on any occa- 
sion than can be secured on the largest obtainable number of subjects 
or specimens. 

It is self-evident that there can be little use of spending valuable 
time in trying to take measurements on the living for which the land- 
marks are uncertain or which call for resented exposures, so long as 
we may obtain skeletal remains of the people in question on which the 
problems involved may be studied with greater facility; and it would 
be a poor anthropological procedure which would give preference of 
the number of measurements to the number of subjects to be examined. 
The number of measurements and observations may safely be said to 
be as a rule subordinate to the number of subjects studied, and to 
interests of prompt elaboration and publication of the data. 

The treatment and analysis of the secured data are naturally pro- 
cedures of the greatest importance, for on them will depend, next to 
the accuracy of the data, the value of the report to be published. 

Due to the nature of anthropological measurements and observa- 
tions, their treatment must be in part mathematical and in part 
biological, but both of these methods are capable of unnecessary 
complexities. Given a completed series of trustworthy data, the 
objects of the student naturally will be, first, to extract out of these 
data their full anthropological value; and second, to present these 
results in the most scientific and at the same time assimilable form to 
the forum of his fellow anthropologists. All this calls again essen- 
tially for solidity and simplicity. The publications should be free 
from ‘‘unfinished business” and perplexing formule. They must not 
be an extension of the laboratory blackboard or scrap-paper. The 
calculations and analyses, whatever their nature may be, are parts of 
the preparation of the material, and except in explanatory notes 


ANTHROPOMETRY ay § 


ought not to constitute a part of the final report. No calculation in 
anthropometry is so abstruse that it could not be presented in the 
final report in plain terms, freely and unequivocably intelligible to all 
workers in the branch, and to other intelligent readers. Whenever a 
doubt arises in the mind of a conscientious worker as to what method 
of analysis or special presentation would be preferable—and there will 
be not a few of such cases—his best guides will be the relative useful- 
ness of the procedure, and the simplicity of presentation. 

Most of these points will be dealt with further on special occasions. 


III 


The best and in fact the only sufficient preparation for scien- 
tific anthropometry, are the studies which lead to the degree of 
doctor of medicine. In fault of such complete courses there should 
be at least equivalent courses in anatomy, physiology and pathology. 
Being the comparative science of man, physical anthropology and its 
handmaid anthropometry deal with the whole range of human varia- 
tion, which, while essentially structural and functional, is at every 
step modified or modifiable by pathological conditions. The student 
with a simple A.B. or Ph.D. without the special courses here men- 
tioned, has a great and often insurmountable disadvantage for a career 
in physical anthropology even though he was able to receive legitimate 
instruction in the latter and training in anthropometry. He will 
remain a bird with a paralyzed wing. 

Besides a suitable scientific foundation the worker-to-be in anthro- 
pometry should possess a good reading knowledge, in addition to 
English, of the French and German languages, at least, for the bulk of 
anthropological literature is still in those languages and there are 
very few translations. He should further possess good training in 
drawing as wellasin photography. Moreover, if he is to make anthro- 
pology and anthropometry his life vocation he must also possess 
certain physical qualifications. He must have good, enduring eye- 
sight; and large capacity for work both in the field and in the labora- 
tory. Last but not least, he should possess those mental qualities 
which will enable him to follow his work with undimmed enthusiasm 
and vigor under smaller material compensation and perhaps other 
advantages than those of his friends who have remained in medical 
practice or chosen other vocations; for anthropology is not an indus- 
trial necessity. The compensations for this le in the high grade of 
his work. He deals intimately with the highest of organisms, he 


38 ALES HRDLIGKA 


contributes to the knowledge of what is most worth while. His 
studies of human evolution and antiquity, of the developing child and 
youth, of the infinite variation of full-blown manhood and woman- 
hood, of the laws that control all this, and of the means by which 
these laws may consciously and effectively be directed for future 
advance of humanity—all these will provide him with mental food of 
such an order that he will easily forget the regrets of not having 
chosen a more remunerative vocation. 


IV 


Granted a well qualified student presents himself at our Laboratory 
for a thorough instruction in anthropometry, what will be the pro- 
cedure? ‘The preliminaries may be outlined as follows: 

1. Acquaintance with Instruments—Anthropometry commands a 
number of special instruments, which in exactly the same form are 
used in no other branch of science. These instruments are graduated 
in the metric system, which must be well understood by the scholar. 
They are all graduated in centimeters and millimeters, and this 
indicates the most natural and safest way of recording the data. Their 
marking, however, presents certain differences and peculiarities which 
must be thoroughly mastered, or they will lead to errors. Therefore 
the first lesson and practice will relate to a thorough acquaintance 
with the most common instruments; while the next will be devoted 
to their handling. 

2. The handling of instruments is a matter of considerable concern. 
They may be handled uncouthly, and in such a way that they will 
tire the hand and eyes, even if not conducing to errors; and they may 
be handled so that they completely cease to be sensed as something 
foreign in the hand or to the eye, and offer not the slightest impediment 
to work however prolonged. Even in anthropometric laboratories 
and text-books, however, the methods practiced or advocated are 
not the same throughout, wherefore the student will need a careful 
guidance. An interesting fact in this connection is that all hands, 
short or long, stout or slender, are not equally adapted to any method 
and will generally result in more or less individual modification in the 
direction of least resistance. Also a long practice with a method that 
in itself is not the very best may lead to fair efficiency, which with 
personal reasons explains why more than one method are being per- 
petuated. 

Attention to Instruments——Anthropometric instruments demand a 


ANTHROPOMETRY 39 


certain amount of careful attention, especially on expeditions. They 
should be well nickeled, to prevent rusting. They must work smoothly 
but not loosely. The joints and slide boxes should be kept slightly 
oiled, but so as not to soil the fingers of the operator. All the instru- 
ments should be periodically tested on standards, which gives the 
worker due confidence. If a thermometer is used it should be an 
instrument with plainly legible scale and one which will without fail 
give the maximum record within five minutes. Rapid thermometers 
are not especially advantageous, they break more readily, being made 
of thinner glass. To keep the thermometer clean a small bottle of 
peroxide or other antiseptic is provided, in which the instrument is 
kept between use. A towel or two should be kept on hand to clean 
the instruments as desirable in the course of the procedure. Finally, 
due attention must be given the instruments in connection with storage 
in the laboratory between examinations, and in connection with trans- 
portation. They should have a suitable glass-door case in the labora- 
tory, and a specially made portable box or case for outside and field 
work. 

3. A study of landmarks should logically be the next step. Measure- 
ments, to be strictly comparable, must be taken in a strictly defined 
way and from or between the same anatomical points. These points, 
whether on the living or on the skeletal parts are known as the anthro- 
pometric landmarks, with which the student must become thoroughly 
acquainted. To facilitate this he should begin with the most needed 
points on a good series of dry skulls of both sexes and widely differing 
ages where he may learn their exact location, significance and variation. 
An additional skull of a young and one of adult anthropoid ape, 
particularly the chimpanzee, are very useful in this connection. 

From dry material but with this still at hand, the student will pass 
to the determination of the needed landmarks on living male adults, 
then on females and finally on children. He should invariably now 
and even later mark some of the points with an aniline pencil, which 
will facilitate his measurements. 
_ 4. In the actual practice of measuring, it is necessary to impress the 

student with the necessity of concentration of his attention on the 
subject or specimen within his hands and on the scale of his instrument; 
the holding and handling of the instrument will rapidly become auto- 
matic. With subject in convenient position, the landmarks deter- 
mined, and the instruments properly used, everything depends on the 
accuracy of reading of the scale. More and larger errors probably are 


40 ALES HRDLICKA 


committed in reading the scale in a poor light, by defective eyes, on 
instruments the scale markings of which have become dulled, and by 
carelessness, than through all other agencies. One of the best rules 
at this period is to make a double reading of each determination, and 
after having finished and made records, to repeat all the measurements. 
Nothing at this stage teaches as effectively as errors self-detected. 


V 


Principles of Recording. Blanks.—Every definite piece of anthro- 
pometric research calls for a well reasoned out and organized scheme. 
The student should be fully conscious of what he wants to ascertain. 
The objects of any given piece of work are such and such, and to 
attain them it will be most useful, or indispensable, to take such 
and such measurements and observations. For the records of these 
measurements and observations are arranged blanks on which they 
are placed in the order of their importance, relation and best practical 
sequence. Each blank is made so that it will serve, say, for twenty- 
five cases (two giving us 50, four 100), and is then printed or otherwise 
multiplied in sufficient numbers for the study at hand. A good blank 
facilitates greatly the whole procedure of measuring and observation, 
as well as the subsequent reduction of the data. 

The size of the blanks is of considerable importance. The individual 
blanks for work on adults should not be larger than standard letter 
size paper (roughly 21.5 x 27 cm. or 844 x 10% in.). For all exten- 
sive work they should be printed. For a regular piece of anthropo- 
metric research more than one form will be required, and the separate 
forms should be marked with consecutive numbers or letters. Each 
blank bears an appropriate heading; is subdivided by seven horizontal 
lines so as to afford space for the legends, for the measurements of 25 
subjects, and a space below where the summaries of the measurements 
or observations may be recorded. Each blank bears also a series of 
vertical lines for the records of the individual measurements or observa- 
tions. ‘The width of the resulting columns is regulated by the needs 
in each case, and should be ample enough to permit the making of 
plainly legible records without crowding. In the case of visual 
observations the records are of necessity and with advantage made by 
abbreviations. The left margin of each blank bears two perforations 
for binding. For a definite piece of work from four to six blanks of 
each number, sufficient for 100 to 150 individuals, are bound or 
clasped in loose-leaf covers, and each set is separated by a blotter. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 41 


This gives a very convenient ‘‘record-book,”’ which is easily handled 
during the examination, whether this is carried on in field or laboratory, 
which is very convenient during the work on the data, and which can 
not be readily lost or mislaid. Illustrations of blanks will be given 
later. 

Subjects of only one group, one sex and one stage of life are recorded 
on one blank, to save copying. The measurements are recorded in 
centimeters and their decimals, as they are marked on the instruments. 
To make the record in millimeters or meters, according to the essen- 
tially German method, has the disadvantages of a greater liability to 
error, and of a much greater difficulty of grasping and remembering the 
values of the measurements. The examiner records the figures himself 
to further guard against error; and until his mind is so trained that it 
can safely retain two successive determinations, he records each 
measurement by itself. A constant care is exercised to make each 
figure so that it will not be possible to mistake it for anything else; 
this applies particularly to 0 and 6, 4 and 9, 1 and 7, which if written 
hastily may readily resemble and be mistaken for each other. The 
recording is done invariably in pen and with permanent ink that will 
not fade out in the course of years, for some of the records secured may 
be of value long afterwards. 

Although there would be no objection to a contrary practice, it is 
customary and doubtless more convenient as well as time saving, to 
proceed in the examination and hence on the blanks first with the 
measurements and then with the visual observations. 

In choosing a place for examination, it is imperative to select the 
best lighted spot, and at the same time one where the observer will be 
least subject to interruptions. Side-light is undesirable; and measur- 
ing or examining in poor light or in artificial light, except perhaps 
strong electric are light, is to be avoided unless dictated by absolute 
necessity. No conversation with the subject or a third person should 
be carried on during the examination, in order that the whole attention 
of the observer may be concentrated on the work itself. Finally, 
while it is not necessary to put down on the blank each measurement 
separately, not more than two consecutive measurements should 
be carried in mind before recording them. In the examination of 
women it is important to retain the attitude of the methodic, abstract 
investigator. 

If the above rules are followed, the well-trained, earnest observer 
will find his work reduced to a mechanical procedure of high order, 


42 ALES HRDLICKA 


which will not tire him either mentally or physically and the precision 
of which will be a source of constant gratification. 


VI 


Selection of Subjects—In the study of any human group the value 
of the data—all other things being equal—will be directly propor- 
tionate to the purity of the group. With this point in view the first 
steps of the observer will be directed towards a proper selection. 
Selection by sex, age, homogeneity, pathological conditions, and 
occasionally also according to occupation, social status, and environ- 
mental distinctions. 

As an invariable rule, each sex is to be recorded on separate blanks, 
and in the case of children and adolescents the same is also true of 
each age group. 

Subjects—In work among the living, and particularly in field work 
among primitive tribes, one of the main concerns of the student is to 
obtain a sufficient number of good subjects. In order to do so he 
generally must have some help. Conditions will differ in this respect 
according to the group studied. In the case of schools, institutions, 
and recruiting stations, matters may be easily arranged. But when 
groups or. tribes where submission to measurements can only be volun- 
tary, are to be studied, the investigator must secure assistance. 
Among our own people much can be done by the observer making 
known as widely as possible the objects of his work and his needs; 
by interesting helpful friends in the work; and by engaging one or 
more active individuals who will assist him for a compensation. 
Among primitive tribes the best policy is, in the first place, to bring 
influential introductions; in the second place, to acquaint the chiefs 
and elders honestly and plainly with the objects of the work as far 
as they may comprehend; and by engaging, for a compensation, the 
best available men and women of the tribe to bring subjects. The 
compensation is best arranged at so much per subject, and as a rule 
it is also advisable to make a regular small payment to each subject. 
In explaining the objects of anthropometric work to primitive men 
and women it is best to dwell on the medical side of the examination, 
1.e., the desire to ascertain the state of health and strength in the tribe 
with the diseases and causes of death, matters which they readily 
understand and appreciate. It is hardly necessary to add that the 
success of the student in anthropometry, with civilized as well as with 
primitive peoples, will depend in the main on his address and general 


ANTHROPOMETRY 43 


behaviour. The honest, friendly and able worker, with earnest, 
dignified procedure, will have little difficulty in succeeding among 
any class of people. 

Grouping by Age.—This will be guided by precedence and what 
may be called the scientific sense. It may differ somewhat according 
to the number of available subjects. In series of ample size, the 
segregation up to 6 weeks of age should be by weeks, from that on 
up to 1 year, by months. From 1 and up to 3% years, by half a year; 
and thereafter by the year. The months and years are counted in 
such a way that ‘6 months,” for instance, will embrace everything 
from 5 months and 16 days to 6 months and 15 days, while ‘6 years” 
will include all subjects from 5% to 61% years.!. The grouping of small 
series of subjects is difficult, but the standard scheme should be fol- 
lowed as far as practicable. In especially important small series 
it is advisable to give the exact ages. The adopted system of 
grouping must, of course, always be clearly outlined in the report on the 
observations. 

It is safe to include young men from 20 and young women from 18 
years onward among adults, provided these subjects are not repre- 
sented disproportionately in the series examined. It would not be 
proper, however, to take a class of such sub-adults, especially males, 
as fully equivalent to the full-growns of the same racial or social 
group, particularly in stature, chest, and few other measurements. 

In a similar way individuals from 60 to 70 years of age should not 
be included in a general series if represented by a larger relative number 
than that by which they are represented in the general population. 
If more are available, they should be placed in a series of their own; 
and this precaution should be invariably followed with those above 70. 
The reason for separating the old is that various features and 
proportions have altered and continue to alter to the end of their 
life. These comprise the nose, ears, jaws, chest, stature and other 
parts. The only dimensions that are not appreciably altered in 
senility are those of the head, with the length of the limbs, hands and 
feet, and pelvic dimensions. 

Estimation of Age.—So long as the student deals with Whites only, 
there will be little difficulty about ascertaining the ages of his subjects; 
but among more primitive peoples records of age are seldom kept and 
the observer will have to take a recourse to estimates. The value of 


1This method is preferable to that which would include under the ‘6 years” 
all subjects between 6 and 7. The mean of such a group would be 63 years. 


44 ALES HRDLICGKA 


such estimates will be directly proportionate to the care with which 
they are made and the experience of the one making them in that 
direction. They are least reliable in childhood, and again in old age. 
In arriving at his conclusion the observer is guided by the general 
development and appearance of the subject; by the eruption of certain 
teeth, particularly the permanent molars; by marks of puberty and 
climacterium; and by signs of aging such as grayness, wrinkling, 
bending of the spine, loss and wear of the teeth, absorption of the jaws, 
changes in sight and hearing, arcus senilis, clubbing of the fingers, etc. 
But it must be borne in mind that none of these signs individually, 
nor even in combination, can be taken as precise indices of age in years. 
They develop at widely different ages in different individuals, and 
even in the same person the setting in of the different signs of ageing 
may be very irregular. Thus, grayness may occur even in young 
adults, and the same is true of certain changes in the eyes and ears. 
Moreover they do not appear synchronously or equally in the cultured 
whites and other races. The student must be guided by the sum of 
the manifestations, supplemented by the subject’s behaviour and by 
such indirect information (references to certain well known events, 
etc.) as may be obtainable. But even thus and with ample experience 
he cannot hope for closer approximation to the right age than within 
five years, plus or minus, among adults. For anthropometric purposes, 
however, such an approximation will be quite sufficient. 

Admixture of Blood—Admixture of blood is of two main kinds: (1) 
That between individuals of different tribes or other groups of the same 
race; and (2) That between individuals of different races. In general 
the latter is the more important, and every effort must be made by the 
investigator to detect individuals who bear such mixture and exclude 
them from his series. This applies particularly when we deal with 
mixtures of the three great stocks of mankind, namely the Whites, 
the Yellow-browns, and the Blacks (Negro and Negrito). For the 
sake of greater accuracy it would be well to speak of these great groups 
always as “‘stocks”’ or ‘‘strains,’”’ reserving the term ‘‘races’”’ for the 
primary groups within these stocks—such as for instance the Nordics, 
Alpines, and the Mediterraneans among the Europeans. 

The progeny of mixtures between individuals within the same stock 
are often unrecognizable and cannot be separated except on the 
basis of their family history. The progeny of mixtures of individuals 
belonging to different stocks are in general easier to recognize, but 
this facility differs according to the stocks concerned, for these are 


ANTHROPOMETRY 45 


not all anthropologically equidistant. Thus the Whites and the 
Yellow-browns (including native Americans) are more closely related, 
than the Negro or the Negrito is with either one of these two strains, 
and their mixtures will be correspondingly more difficult to separate. 
Nevertheless with experience, care and certain tests such a separation 
may be said to be always possible where the mixture is one half and 
one half, and nearly always where it is one fourth and three fourths; 
but when the proportion of the blood of one of the component races 
is less than one fourth, the identification of the mixed-blood becomes 
frequently a matter of considerable difficulty and in mixtures other 
than those of the negro and white may be impossible. The estimate 
of the exact amount of particular blood in a given mix-breed is always 
more or less a matter of conjecture. 

The criteria which guide us in diagnosing mixed-bloods, are the 
physiognomy, the color of the skin, the character of the hair, the color 
of the eyes and the tinge of the mucous membranes. Features such 
as the mongolic fold of the upper eyelid, shovel-shaped (deeply con- 
cave) upper incisors, marked freckles, etc., may be additional helps 
in individual cases, particularly in mixtures of Whites and Yellow- 
browns. The color of the skin should be observed on the usually 
covered parts of the chest. 

Skin Tests for Mixed-Bloods.—On the pectoral parts of the chest 
may also be made certain tests developed by the author which in many 
instances of doubtful mixtures between Whites and Indians or other 
Yellow-browns, and between Whites and other colored races, will 
help us to arrive at a conclusion. ‘They are tests for the blood reaction 
of the skin. In a full-blood individual of the Yellow-brown or other 
dark races, if the chest is exposed and the observer makes three or four 
vertical lines over the pectoral parts by drawing his finger nail over 
the skin with a certain amount of pressure, there will be little or no 
visible reaction; but if there is any mixture with Whites the lines will 
show as fairly broad red marks, and the flush will be of some du-. 
ration—both features being the more marked the more white blood is 
present in the individual under examination, provided he is in the 
ordinary state of health. In malarial, anaemic and phthisical subjects, 
where the condition and supply of blood are much altered, the value 
of this test does not hold good. 

The exact paternal or maternal parentage may in some cases be deter- 
minable through heritage of special features; but the need for such 
identification arises only in special instances. 


46 ALES HRDLICKA 


Pathological Conditions.—In examining any group for purely anthro- 
pological purposes, it is obviously desirable to avoid the inclusion of 
any individuals who may have been affected by some pathological 
condition sufficiently to suffer a material alteration in their measure- 
ments. It is in this connection that practical knowledge of human 
pathology by the observer becomes necessary. 

The disease that is responsible for most of the alterations that con- 
stitute sufficient reason for the elimination of the subject from our 
series, is rachitis. The evidence of this morbid process may exist in 
more or less deformed limbs, in pitted or eroded-like teeth, deformities 
of the thorax, ribs and pelvis, in various asymmetries, and in cranial 
deformations due to premature occlusion of some part of the sutures. 
Generally we find more than one of these defects in the same person. 
Markedly bowed legs, deformed thorax, or badly deformed pelvis, 
are sufficient reasons for excluding the subject from the examination. 

Other pathological processes the results of which will often unfit 
the subject for anthropometric studies, are tuberculosis of the bones 
and joints, and various forms of paralysis. The former lead to 
deformities of the spine and of individual limbs, while the latter may 
affect directly and indirectly the whole body. The head and face in 
these cases may of course be unaffected and utilizable for our observa- 
tions, but unless we can in addition get also a normal stature, it is 
better to exclude the individual. 

In addition to the above the observer will meet with persons of 
defective constitution due to hereditary syphilis or other causes; and 
on the other hand he may find individuals in whom the body, the 
head, the facial parts, or individual limbs or features, may be over- 
grown (acromegaly, giantism), under-developed (dwarfing, cretinism), 
or seriously altered by other pathological conditions (congenital defects 
of individual parts or limbs, gross anomalies, microcephaly, hydro- 
cephalus, arthritic lesions, wounds and fractures). The rule in such 
cases is, that wherever the condition or deformity is such that normal 
measurements and observations cannot be secured, the subject is not 
to be used for anthropological purposes. But if the deformity applies 
merely to one limb or part, this part alone needs to be excluded. 

Cranial Deformations.—Cranial deformations, of whatever origin, 
are of especial importance to anthropometry, particularly as even 
in cases of skulls, where they are much more easily distinguished, they 
are known to have been included with or taken for normal 
variations. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 47 


The pathological deformations of the vault most commonly met with 
are scaphocephaly, where the vault is abnormally prolonged and the 
sagittal region resembles more or less the keel of a boat. This de- 
formity, which may be accompanied by an annular retrocoronal 
depression, is due to premature occlusion of the sagittal suture. It is 
particularly common among the American negroes. Another form is 
acrocephaly, or abnormal increase in the height of the fore part of the 
vault, due in the main to premature occlusion of parts of the coronal 
suture. Still another frequent deformation which, however, does not 
except in pronounced cases necessitate the elimination of the subject, 
is plagiocephaly, or asymmetry of the vault, produced mostly by a 
premature occlusion of the coronal or lamboid suture on one side. 
In these cases we will find one side of the forehead to protrude more 
forward and the opposite side of the occiput to protrude more back- 
ward than the other side, besides which there may be differences in the 
parietal regions. In minor cases of plagiocephaly, however, the prin- 
cipal measurements of the vault are not perceptibly altered and there 
is no need to eliminate the subject. The cause of the condition in 
these minor cases is frequently obscure. 

Posthumous deformations of the skull are met with occasionally. 
They may be localized or diffuse, the latter being generally lateral or 
bilateral. They may or may not be attended by warping or fractures. 
The more important grades are easily diagnosed. The specimens 
must of course be eliminated for all the measurements that are affected. 

Artificial Deformations.—Besides the above, the student will meet 
more or less frequently, according to the people he is working among, 
with head deformations produced by artificial means. These are 
divisible into non-intentional and intentional. The non-intentional 
kind are as a rule produced in early infancy by the head of the infant 
lying habitually in a certain position on a resistant cushion. They 
consist of occipital or occipito-parietal flattening, which may be 
median or lateral, slight, medium or pronounced. 

Intentional artificial deformations, which are particularly common 
in certain parts of this continent and among certain Pacific Islanders, 
are designed shapings of the head of the new-born infant, as a result 
of a habitual or religious observance. They are produced by the con- 
tinued application of direct pressure, by board and pad, bandage and 
pads, or by a bandage alone, to the head of the new-born. They are 
of three main classes, namely, fronto-occipital (flat-head), circum- 
ferential (“ macrocephalous” or ‘‘ Aymara”’), and occipital. 


48 ALES HRDLICKA 


The ‘‘flat-heads”’ are characterized by a greater or lesser flattening 
of the front, a corresponding flattening of the occiput, a compensatory 
bulging of the parietal regions, a more or less marked depression along 
and just posterior to the coronal suture, and occasionally a more or 
less marked depression along the posterior portions of the sagittal 
suture. When pronounced, the last named condition gives rise to the 
so-called bilobed crania. | 

The “Aymara” deformations are characterized by a more or less 
marked, broad, circular flattening or depression passing over the 
frontal bone, the temporal squammae and the lower parts of the parie- 
tals, and over the lower portion of the occipital, while the posterior 
and superior portion of the parietals and the upper part of the occipital 
protrude ip a compensatory way upward and backward. Anterior to 
the coronal suture in these cases there is generally an elevation, while pos- 
terior to the suture we find a more or less pronounced annular depression. 

The occipital deformations resemble those produced accidentally, 
but im general are more marked. They may represent merely a 
favored and perhaps assisted incidental flattening due to the resistant 
head cushion, as among the Navahos and Pueblos; or they may occur, 
due to less effective methods, as by-products of the flat-head deforma- 
tion with help of bandages, as among the old Peruvians. These 
deformations generally involve parts of the parietals, and may be 
median or lateral. They result in shortening, elevation and broadening 
of the vault, and in making the forehead both higher and more vertical. 

Each of the above forms of head deformation presents a number of 
sub-varieties according to local differences in methods. And in all 
the deformation, if marked, affects the base, the orbits and the facial 
parts of the skull. Except in the minimum cases the changes in the 
cranial characteristics are such that the utilization of such individuals 
or specimens for anthropological research on the head or skull becomes 
very difficult, risky and often impossible. All these cases must be 
carefully excluded so far as measurements of the affected parts go. 

Individual instances of small degree deformations of either class 
may, as already said, be readily mistaken for individual normal 
conformation, or pass undetected. The subject calls for special 
attention with each individual, which will be discussed more closely 
under ‘‘ Methods.” 

VII 


Photography and Cast-making.—In anthropological investigation, 
whether among primitive or civilized peoples, it is often highly desirable 


ANTHROPOMETRY 49 


and may be necessary, in addition to measurements and observations, 
to take photographs also, and to make facial casts. Directions for 
these will be given later. In this place it may merely be stated that 
both photography and casting may well and with advantage be at- 
tended to by the observer himself. Nothing is more gratifying and, 
it may well be added, trouble saving, than one’s own good work in these 
directions. The photographing should be done preferably, if condi- 
tions permit, immediately after the measurements and observations 
on the subject are concluded, for he may not be available at another 
time. It may even be necessary to take the cast at this time also for 
the subject has occasionally come from a long distance; but for those 
who may readily be reached the casting may be postponed until after 
all the anthropometric work is concluded. 


VIII 
FIELD ANTHROPOMETRY 


The preceding introductory considerations may be rounded up by a 
few remarks as to anthropometry in the field, where conditions will 
differ radically from those in the laboratory. 

Supplies; Transportation—In general it is best to secure all the 
supplies for the scientific work of an expedition before departure, and 
to secure only the best and freshest materials. This applies par- 
ticularly to plaster-of-paris for facial casts, and to photographic plates 
and films. The number and variety of articles to be carried along on 
an expedition cannot be given in detail. It depends largely on the 
regions to be visited, the prospective length of the expedition, and the 
experience as well as the wants of the observer. The best rule is to 
take everything needed, with nothing superfluous. 

The cameras and instruments should be well tested before the trip. 
The paster-of-paris under ordinary conditions is carried in large tin 
cans or zinc lined boxes, and the photographic plates and films in their 
ordinary receptacles. For the tropics all such material should be 
carried in special light metal boxes, and in the case of the plaster every 
precaution must be taken against its becoming spoiled by moisture. 
The photographic necessities should be such as to permit under any 
circumstances the loading of plates and some test developments of 
exposures. A complete development of the plates and films and 
printing in the field are not advisable, unless the work is carried on in 
connection with some well established archeological or other exploring 
station. 

4 


50 ALES HRDLIGKA 


An important item never to be neglected in connection with an 
expedition to primitive tribes is to take along an ample supply of small 
change, which is invariably rare in out-of-the-way regions; and the 
money should preferably be in used coin which will not be regarded 
with suspicion. 

Cameras.—lIt is best to carry two cameras—a pocket kodak for 
scenes on the road and instantaneous exposures; and a larger camera, 
preferably with glass plates, for portrait work and larger landscapes. 
Both cameras should be provided with the best lenses obtainable, and 
be well tried out in every way before departure. A stereoscopic camera 
is advantageous. 

Boxes.—The cameras, instruments, medical supplies and other 
articles are carried in standard canvas-covered boxes, with rounded 
corners and rope handles. These boxes should be of such a size that 
they may be conveniently carried on the backs of men, burros, horses, 
mules, llamas or camels, as well as in a railroad car or a wagon. They 
should be made of strong, light wood, preferably gum, well jointed, 
and have all the hinges on the inside to make robbery difficult. The 
best way of fastening is with strong padlocks. ‘The size of the boxes 
found most convenient by the writer (except for the instrument case 
which should fit these) is, externally, height 18 in. (46 cm.), breadth 
20.5 in. (52 em.) and antero-posteriorly 14 in. (36 em.). In field these 
boxes will serve various useful purposes, such as chairs and tables, and 
at night as a wind break, or base over which in case of rain may be 
spread a sheet of canvas converting the whole into a sort of shelter 
or tent; while on the return voyage they may be used to transport 
casts, photographic plates and specimens. In places where the ex- 
aminations are carried on the boxes may again serve as chairs and 
tables; and if there are enough of them, at night they make a very 
good elevated bank on which to spread one’s bed. By suitable inside 
partitioning one of these boxes may be fitted for medical supplies, 
one for kitchen utensils, one for the cast-making outfit, another for the 
photographic apparatus, still another for trinkets and smoking sup- 
plies for the natives, etc. The boxes are numbered or otherwise 
marked so that any desired one may be readily found when needed; 
and a duplicate set of keys is provided for a case of loss. 

Companions.—This is a matter of much more consequence than 
might at first appear. In general the most satisfactory procedure is 
for the observer to engage only such companions as he may need 
in traveling from place to place. The taking along of friends, co- 


ANTHROPOMETRY 51 


workers, or even a photographer, not only risks their exposure to 
sickness and greatly increases the expenses, but is often productive of 
much friction as to plans, food, time of starting, etc. It may further 
lead to difficulties in fixing blame for accidents and especially of 
credit for discoveries; and will frequently be productive of delays and 
inconveniences, for often where one can find what he needs, two or 
three cannot be accommodated. Free hand, freedom from anxiety 
for others, undivided responsibility, and undivided credit, are precious 
assets which should be carefully guarded by the explorer. 

Miscellaneous.—Photographing and even measuring may have to 
be done by the roadside, in the field, or under other untoward circum- 
stances which often will call for the exercise of not a little ingenuity. 
He may at first be received with suspicion and suffer for the faults of 
others. But with a fair interpreter, friendly, honest attitude, and such 
small gifts as may best be fitted to the occasion, the student will as 
a rule secure the needed observations. It is almost needless to say 
that his own health and strength will demand rational attention, for 
he will travel in and out of season, may have to endure exertions and 
privations, and be subject to infection through contaminated water, 
spoiled food, insects, and contact with diseased persons. All this can 
in a large measure be counteracted, and if so the field expeditions be- 
come to the worker not only a source of priceless experiences and acqui- 
sitions, but also of a deep recuperation. 


52 ALES HRDLIGKA 


ANTHROPOMETRY ON THE LIVING.—INSTRUMENTS 


The instruments used in measurements on the living, with the 
exceptions of the compasses and the tape, are different from those 
used in measuring skeletal material. Also, there is not yet as com- 
plete uniformity in these instruments as might be desirable. Matters 
of this nature in all branches of science are largely those of evolution 
and the eventual survival of the fittest. 

Most of the anthropometric instruments or their prototypes owe 
their development to the pioneers of the Ecole d’Anthropologie, 
Paris, and more particularly to Paul Broca, the first director of the 
Ecole and the father of anthropometry. The ingenuity and great 
service of Broca in this regard have not yet received a due apprecia- 
tion. The instruments are partly non-metallic and partly metallic, 
partly fixed and partly free, and in some instances they differ some- 
what according to whether they are to be used in the laboratory or 
in the field. 

The instruments esseritial for measurements on the living are the 
planes or rods for measuring the stature, sitting height and the span; 
the spreading and the sliding compasses or calipers, for measuring 
the head, the facial parts and the hands; the large sliding compass for 
measuring the diameters of the chest, pelvis and feet; the anthro- 
pometric tape for measuring circumferences of the head, body and 
limbs; and certain accessories such as the dynamometer, color scales 
etc. They may briefly be described as follows: 

1. The Anthropometric Plane of Brocam—Made of thoroughly 
seasoned wood, 1 meter high, 12.5 cm. broad, 1.5 cm. in thickness, 
stained dull yellow, varnished; graduated in centimeters full across, 
in half-centimeters one-half or two-thirds across, and in millimeters 
along the left or both margins. Marking plain, easily legible. The 
upper edge provided with two eye-screws or other device for hanging; 
and the plane may be hinged at the 70 or 75 cm. mark for easier 
transportation (A. H.). la. Square (Adjunct).—Two pieces of light 
wood, 18 cm. long by 12 broad by 1.2 in thickness, joined at right 
angles, and provided on the inside, in the middle line, with a narrow 
strip serving as a handle; stained and varnished as 1. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 53 


Use: for measuring stature and sitting height. In the laboratory 
it is of some advantage to use a separate plane for each of the two 
measurements, the plane for measuring stature being fastened one 
meter above the floor, while that for measuring sitting height is 
fastened directly above the bench on which the subject sits for this 
measurement. In the field, one plane fastened one meter above the 
floor or a level piece of ground, will do for both measurements, the 
height of the bench in the case of sitting height being subtracted from 
the total measurement obtained. 

Modifications—In the original planes of Broca, at a distance of 
1 cm. from the left border, there was a fairly deep groove, which served 
for a graduated sliding square by which one could measure the stature 
as well as the ear and shoulder heights, and, together with another 
appliance, also the facial angle; all these have now become obsolete. 

Paper or Cloth Plane or Tape.—At the occasion of certain recom- 
mendations made by the Committee on Anthropology of the National 
Research Council, in connection with the impending measuring of 
large numbers of recruits for the United States Army, the author pro- 
posed! that instead of the more costly plane, special inextensible 
linen or paper strips be printed to take its place. A strip of this 
nature, 8 to 12 cm. broad, printed accurately on inextensible and 
unshrinkable paper or other material (ordinary materials change 
considerably!), is easy to work with and has the advantage of cheap- 
ness as well as ease of transportation. ‘They may be made in segments 
of 50 cm. In cases of necessity a scale may be improvised on the 
wall or other vertical, or on a strip of paper; or the ordinary anthropo- 
metric tape may be fastened to the wall, rod, etc. An improvised 
stout paper scale should be well varnished on both sides, to pre- 
vent puckering, shrinking or extension. All scales must be tested by 
standards. 

2. Anthropometer.—A number of related instruments are embraced 
under this name. Their common principle is that of a graduated rod, 
single or in sections, fixed to a pedestal or with a free lower end, and 
provided with a sliding horizontal branch. They are used for measur- 
ing stature and sitting height, instead of the above described plane, 
and are particularly advocated for work in regions where no vertical 
such as a wall or tree may be found on which the plane might be 
fastened. 


1 Am. J. Poys. ANTHROP., 1918, 1, 81. 


54 ALES HRDLICKA 


The most useful modifications of this instrument are the Anthro- 
pometre and the Tovse anthropométrique of Topinard,! and the metal 
rod of Martin. The terminal part of the last named has both a fixed 
and a sliding branch and may serve for the purposes of both the 
anthropometer and a large sliding compass.” 

These instruments are of value and continue to be employed by 
various investigators, particularly those of the Zurich school; but they 
are not as handy, easy of manipulation or accurate as the fixed plane. 
Moreover, there is a rather important difference in their mode of 
employment by the different observers, some using them in the same 
way as the plane, which secures a standard posture of the subject, 
while the followers of Martin place them in front of the subject, which 
makes the regulation of posture uncertain. 

The writer advocates the use of the plane, for the fastening of 
which one can always find or provide some vertical. 

Individuals met with on the road, in the fields, etc., may be measured 
against any suitable object and the height determined by the ordinary 
tape. 

3. Horizontal Plane (Accessory).—For laboratory purposes and 
for field work where numerous subjects are to be measured, this is a 
useful accessory facilitating the measurement of the span. It con- 
sists of a light wooden plank, or paper strip, 30 cm. broad by 60 cm. 
in length, graduated from 140 to 200 cm. For the purposes of measur- 
ing the span a vertical wooden strip is fastened on the wall 80 cm. 
from and parallel with the left edge of the vertical plane, to serve as a 
“point d’appui’”’ of the longest finger of the right hand of the subject. 
The horizontal plane is then fastened to the wall at a distance of 140 
em. from this vertical strip (or 47.5 cm. to the right of the vertical 
plane), and serves for the determination of the span length, the exact 
manner of taking which will be described under ‘‘Methods.” A 
serviceable scale of this nature may be improvised on the wall. A 
paper scale must be well varnished. 

4. Wooden Bench (Accessory).—For measuring height sitting (and 
other purposes). For laboratory use and in measurements on Ameri- 
can people (who on the average are tallest of all Whites), the most 
serviceable bench is one of 50 cm. in height, 50 cm. in breadth, and 32 


1 Elém. d’Anthrop. gén., 8°, Paris, 1885, 1116-20. Made by both Mathieu 
and Collin, Paris. 
2Made by P. Hermann, Zurich. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 55 


cm. antero-posteriorly. For work among shorter peoples, and es- 
pecially among children, the bench must be lower, the aim being for 
the thighs of the subject to be flexed at right angles to the trunk. In 
the field, any convenient well-made box may be used. 

The laboratory bench is stained light mahogany or other suitable 
color, and varnished. It should be made of well seasoned wood, to 
prevent appreciable changes in particularly dry or damp weather. 

5. Plumb and Level (Accessory).—When using an anthropometer, 
various measurements on the body, such as the sternal height, shoulder 
height, etc., may be taken direct, but unless the subject stands against 
some vertical there are always chances of error owing to uncertainty 
as to correctness of position. When using the Broca plane we may 
get all these measurements in a simple and more accurate way with 
the help of a small level and plumb. The level is made in the labor- 
atory. It consists of a narrow glass tube, 16 cm. long, filled with 
alcohol containing a small bubble of air, and marked with a red ring 
at the middle. The plumb is a pointed piece of lead or other metal, 
suspended on a strong linen or silk thread. The subject stands against 
the plane in the same position as for the determination of stature; 
the level is applied to the landmark from which the measurement is 
to be taken, and held there horizontally by the left hand; the plumb 
is then dropped to the floor, without any slack, and the thread is 
pinched by the thumb nail and forefinger at the height of the lower 
edge of the level. The subject then steps aside, and the measurement 
taken is ascertained on the scale of the plane. The procedure is quite 
simple. 

6. The Spreading Calipers (Compas d’épaisseur).—This is one of 
the indispensable and most useful instruments in Anthropometry. 
It is manufactured in several varieties. These are, (1) the small com- 
pass of Broca, made by Collin in Paris, as well as—with slight modi- 
fications—by Hermann in Zurich; (2) the standard larger compass of 
the Paris Ecole d’Anthropologie, made for many years before the 
war by Mathieu as well as by Collin, in Paris; (3) the Bertillon com- 
pass, made by Collin; and (4) the Hrdli¢ka compass made in France 
(Collin) and United States (Fig. 10). 

The several instruments differ in usefulness. The small compass 
is more adapted for work on the skull than for that on the living, 
although it is also used for the latter purpose. The larger standard 
compass is an excellent instrument for ordinary anthropometric work 
on the living, as well as that on the skull. The Bertillon compass is 


ALES HRDLICKA 


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ANTHROPOMETRY 57 


practically the same as the preceding, but is marked by a greater 
rigidity as well as bluntness of the branches, and a reduction of the 
scale. The Hrdli¢ka compass possesses certain adaptations and needs 
a special description. Of the three older forms of calipers only one, 
the standard compass of Mathieu, could be used in measuring the 
height of the head. This measurement is one of growing importance 
and various methods as well as instruments have been devised in the 
past for securing it on the living. One of the easiest of methods, for 
many years practised by the author, was to introduce the branches 
of the standard compass into the auditory meatus, bring the scale of 
the instrument over the bregma, note the spread, determine with 
the rod of the sliding compass the distance from the bregma to the 
lower edge of the scale, and by a simple arithmetic procedure, obtain 
the height of the head. But these older instruments had certain dis- 
advantages when used for this purpose, which were a somewhat 
inadequate size of the branches in the cases of large heads, an oblique 
direction of the terminal parts of the branches, particularly when 
sufficiently dilated for introduction into the ears, and the facility 
with which the branches penetrated deeper into the ear than required. 
To obviate these disadvantages, the writer in 1912 visited MM. Collin 
in Paris and gave directions for making compasses with slightly larger 
branches, with the terminal parts horizontal at the spread of 10 cm.; 
and with a guard on the lower portion of each branch 8 mm. from the 
point, to regulate the distance of introduction into the meatus. The 
resulting instrument is but imperceptibly heavier than the older stand- 
ard compass of Mathieu; it serves with equal facility the same pur- 
poses; and in addition it is thoroughly well adapted for measuring the 
height of the head. 

7. The Sliding Compass (Compas glissvére).—This instrument is 
too well known to need special description. Figure (10) shows the 
compass of Collin, which is almost identical with that of Mathieu 
and is a well-balanced and most useful instrument. The Martin 
sliding compass shows slight differences, which appear to be matters 
of personal choice rather than those of additional usefulness. 

8. Large Sliding Compass.—There are several instruments of this 
nature, some made of wood (Paris, American), others of wood with 
steel branches (Topinard, Manouvrier), and still others wholly of 
‘metal (Martin, Hrdli¢ka). Except the wooden and the author’s 
instrument, they have in common the disadvantage of narrow branches, 
which in measuring the thorax are liable to be pressed into the inter- 


58 ALES HRDLICKA 


costal spaces; and not seldom, especially in the wooden compasses, the 
branches are not rigid enough, which results in some error of measure- 
ment. 

The writer’s instrument consists of a hollow rod, 70 cm. long, 2.2 cm. 
broad and 0.8 cm. thick, made of well nickeled and welded brass 
strips; and of aluminum branches, 26 cm. long (in the free) and 3.5 cm. 
broad. It is light, very serviceable, as well as durable, easy working, 
and accurate (fig. 10). | 

9. Tapes.—The best anthropometric tapes are made in Paris by 
instrument makers who stand in connection with the Ecole d’Anthro- 
pologie. They are made of linen, painted grayish-white, are accurate 
and non-elastic. The layer of paint and varnish on each side is light 
and does not crack. One of these tapes gives months to years of 
service. 

Steel tapes are easier to obtain but less advantageous. They are 
not so easy to manipulate and read; they are cold and sometimes they 
break. The steel tape may be used, however, with some advantages 
on skulls and bones. 

10. Standard Meter (Accessory).—A strong lamina of brass, 1 
meter long, graduated in centimeters and millimeters, standardized in 
France. Obtainable through the French manufacturers of anthropo- 
metric instruments. Very useful for testing accuracy of tapes and 
graduated planes. A laboratory instrument. 

11. Standard Block (Accessory).—Block of wood or preferably 
metal, aluminum or brass, for testing the accuracy of calipers, at 
5, 10, 15, and 20 cm. spread. The best appliances of this nature are 
made of metal. They are laboratory accessories. 

12. Dynamometer (Collin or Mathieu).—Description unnecessary. 
No handles requisite for ordinary tests. 

Other dynamometers are made, particularly in England and in the 
United States, but the results obtained by these are not strictly com- 
parable with those obtained by the classic French instruments, and 
the latter are to be preferred on account of their simplicity, long use 
in anthropometry, and their handiness. 

13. Weighing Scales—The question of weighing scales in Anthro- 
pometry is one of considerable difficulty, for in general they are heavy 
and difficult if not impossible of transportation. In the United States 
and in England, moreover, we have practically no metric scales and 
must use those of the old system, which necessitates a subsequent 
conversion of the figures. Suitable weighing scales for infants in 


ANTHROPOMETRY 59 


both the old and the metric system are obtainable in Europe as well 
as in this country, but even these are heavy for transportation. For- 
tunately, weight in adults, on account of its great variation, is not a 
measurement of prime importance. 

14. Standards for Colors of Skin, Eyes, Hair (Accessories).—-Though 
generally satisfactory observations on skin, eye and hair color are possi- 
ble without the use of standard color scales, the difficulties of nomen- 
clature and of uniform instruction in different laboratories, have never- 
theless caused a strong desire for a series of standards with which the 
colors found could be matched, and by the number or name of which 
they could be recorded. The result has been the preparation, by 
various workers, of scales of colors intended to facilitate this important 
part of anthropological observation. None of these scales represents 
all that could be wished for, but all have their uses. 

Skin Colors.—There are several scales for matching skin color. The 
best known and one that has been most used is that of Broca,! the 
others being those of von Luschan,? Rudolf Martin,*? and Gustav 
Fritsch. Also there are other methods,*® among them direct painting 
in the field of the shades observed, a procedure which meets with only 
limited success on account of the changes in the color of the pigments 
during drying. 

Until an international agreement on some one scale is reached, the 
observer may use either of those now in existence, it being understood 
that in his report he will state which one he employed. Or he may 
use simple descriptive terms which will be given under ‘‘ Methods” 
and which in most cases are quite sufficient. 

Color Standards for Eyes and Hair.—The color of the eyes and the 
hair, as that of the skin, may be determined by unaided observation, 
and with many primitive tribes in general the task is quite simple. 

1 Printed originally in his “‘Instructions générales pour les recherches Anthro- 
pologiques,”’ Mém. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1864, 11; 2e éd., 16mo., Paris, 1879; repr. 
on larger scale in Hrdlicka (A.)—Directions for collecting information and specimens 
for physical anthropology, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., Pt. R. No. 39, Wash., 1904; also, 
in part and with different numbers, in the “Notes and Queries on Anthropology,”’ 
of the B. A. A. S. 

2, Luschan’s scale consisting of a series of colored glass tablets, is made by 
Hermann, Zurich. 

3 Mentioned by G. Fritsch. 

4Fritsch’s colors, on painted paper strips, may be had from W. Pfund, Berlin; 
the method is described in the Mitt. Anthrop. Ges. Wien, 1916, xv1, 183-5. 


’ Gray (J.), A new instrument for determining the color of the hair, eyes and skin 
(Man, 1908, vi, 54); the Bradley’s color top; the trade color scales; etc. 


60 ALES HRDLICKA 


But among mixed groups, and particularly very mixed Whites such as 
the Americans, these procedures become more difficult and call for 
careful instruction as well as experience, or for the use of adequate 
standards. Such standards exist both for the eyes and the hair. 

For the eyes there are several color scales, such as that of Broca,! 
Bertillon,? the Medical Department U. S. A.,? ete. In addition we 
have the artificial eyes of commerce, the glass eye standards of Galton,* 
and the “ Augenfarbentafel” of Martin.’ For hair, samples of actual 
human hair have been used (f. e. by Pearson—Biometrica, 1907, v, 
474); and since 1907 we possess the good though still not fully sufficient 
artificial-hair standards of Eugen Fischer.® 

15. Additional.—Occasionally it may be found necessary or ad- 
visable to use certain accessories in anthropological work on the living, 
such as the finger-print outfit, or the apparatus for determining blood- 
pressure, chest capacity, sensibility, etc.; but these are well-known 
medicolegal or physiological instruments which do not call for a 
specific description in this place. 


SELECTION OF MEASUREMENTS 


As already mentioned, the number of practicable measurements on 
the human form, both in life and on the remains, is infinite. Moreover, 
every one of these measurements may be of anthropological value if 
taken by the same method on sufficiently large numbers of individuals 
of various racial, environmental, social, or defective groups. But it is 
self-evident that for practical purposes we must make for each separate 
piece of investigation a careful selection of those measurements which 
on the one hand will fulfill the objects of our study, and which on the 


1 Echelle chromatique des yeux. Instructions Anthropologiques générales, 2 ed., 
Paris, 1879. Consists of four series of colors, brown, green, blue and grey, with 
five shades to each. 

2 Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1892, 384-7; also, Tableau des nuances de J’iris 
humain, Paris, F. Durand. 

3 Twelve shades, on black strips; Queen & Co., Phila. Same firm furnishes 31 
‘Standard Colors for Artificial Eyes,” which are slightly more useful. 

4 Obsolete. 

5 To be had through the Anthropologische Institut der Universitit, Zurich. 
Consists of a case with aluminum plate and 16 glass eyes which protrude from eyelid- 
like apertures in the plate. 

6 Made by F. Rossett, Freiburg i. B. Consist of a metal case containing 30 dif- 
ferent colored samples of artificial (cellulose) hair. Desc. by Fischer in ‘Die 
Bestimmung der menschlichen Haarfarben,” Korbl. d. d. Anthrop. Ges., 1907, 
XXXvVIII, 1-7, 


ANTHROPOMETRY 61 


other hand will enable us to secure observations on the largest possible 
number of individuals, and not impede a prompt preparation of the 
data for publication. 

The selection of the measurements for a particular piece of study 
is not as difficult as might seem, once we are well conscious of the 
exact aims of the study to be undertaken. If it is to be a study of 
the laws of growth in the child, we shall naturally devote our atten- 
tion mainly to the dimensions of the body as a whole and to those of 
its main segments, the head, neck, trunk and limbs. We may dis- 
regard in this case the growth of the secondary parts such as the ears, 
nose, mouth, hands and feet, and possibly even the development of 
the face as a whole, which should form the subject of special studies. 
Should our object be racial comparison, the main attention will be 
centered in stature, sitting height, possibly the span, and the dimen- 
sions of the head, face, nose and perhaps also the ears. But if the 
object of the research is to be a comparison of two or more environ- 
mental or social groups, then it will be necessary to pay close regard, 
besides the measurements just mentioned, also to those of the shoul- 
ders, chest, hands, and feet, and possibly also to those of special parts 
of musculature. Same rules will naturally be observed in work on 
the skeleton. 

Besides such more general studies there will be occasions for research 
on single parts or organs, which will call for detailed measurements of 
these, together with those on parts that stand in important correla- 
tion. Finally, in the study of individual variations of parts, we may 
practice detailed measurements which will be used on no other oc- 
casion and which it would be of no use to complicate by measurements 
on unrelated parts or organs. 

In preparing for measuring the living, the student must consider, 
in addition to the interests of the work, also the sensibilities of his 
prospective subjects. He must particularly bear in mind that mod- 
esty, though it may differ in shade or degree, is a universal virtue which 
cannot be offended with impunity. Fortunately, measurements which 
would call for exposures likely to be resented are in general those of 
secondary value only. Moreover, a light garment will in no way 
interfere with the accuracy of measurements, as for instance those of 
the chest, the maximum breadth of the pelvis, etc. To demand more 
than an accustomed exposure would spoil the chances of success of 
the investigator in many a tribe of primitive people, and might even 
prove dangerous. Clean mind and clean work are both requisites, 
as well as great tonics. 


62 : ALES HRDLICKA 


Blanks.—The subject of blanks has already been covered in the 
main (p. 40). Anthropological literature contains many examples of 
proposed universal blanks, from those of Broca, Topinard, and the 
British Association, to those of von Luschan and the overcomplex 
ones of Térdk or Rudolf Martin. The essentials are however the same 
in all, and if any rule should be given the student in this connection it 
is to begin his independent work with these essentials, and let experi- 
ence advise him as to extensions. 

The general type of blanks used on the living by the author are 
reproduced on the next pages. Though based on long experience and 
seeming to him satisfactory, they are not given here to be blindly 
followed. He himself modifies them according to occasions. He may 
add, for instance, the sternal notch height, breadth of shoulders, and 
breadth of the pelvis; he may eliminate the span, the ear measure- 
ments and other determinations. The blanks relating to skeletal 
material will be dealt with later. Author’s general blank for children, 
which on account of the diversity of ages is printed on an individual 
sheet, is also here shown. It is equally subject to modifications, ac- 
cording to circumstances. Both sets of the blanks here given will 
be seen to lack various measurements which have been used more or 
less extensively in anthropometry, such as the various subsidiary 
heights (to shoulder, nipples, xiphoid, umbilicus; pubis), those that 
apply to the various segments of the limbs, etc. The reason is that 
except in special studies none of these measurements is of prime 
importance, and in many cases either the exposures they call for or 
the uncertainty of their landmarks, offer serious difficulties to effective, 
accurate work. In case of exceptional opportunity or special interests 
of the observer, any of these measurements may, of course, be included 
in the general scheme. 


LANDMARKS AND METHODS 


So far as measurements on the living are concerned, it will be of 
advantage to speak of landmarks and methods jointly. Moreover, 
only those measurements will be considered in this place which are 
practiced in the anthropometric work of the Smithsonian Institution. 
Information as to others may be readily obtained from Broca,! Topi- 
nard,? Martin,’ and the existing International Agreements. 

* Broca (Paul), Instructions anthropologiques générales. 12mo, 2 ed., Paris, 1879. 


? Topinard (Paul), Eléments d’Anthropologie générale. 8°, Paris, 1885. 
3 Martin (Rudolf), Lehrbuch der Anthropologie. 8°, Jena, 1914. 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


Expedition 






























































, ANTHROPOMETRY 63 
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ANTHROPOMETRY 65 


CHILDREN. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
UnItTEeED States NATIONAL MusEUM 


[hyn Ba) Rest Ea a 2 eh ea one ee 
LET PSG Let aetiol GOaReliy aaa a el ee | ESTO AN ey Sate cht mene camel ihe Sex ae 
Measurements OBSERVATIONS 
De ae Age (real)........ (ADYAL) ate ee OIUIEOL- BRI co bee ges a: ene 
etormauon of head <2... 0202 COLORS O5y 6 VER each i poe fork cake ere 
COlGROR RAITeec aak st ade tee se eee 
Bopy: Natiresol halts lor dale oe a te 
SrRMUP DeLee een oe! Pie? pee Ae Ee. 
Ripeeinger reach. jhe toes otk Poreleadoiy. reese.) Aiea ee 
BARE MAR cree s ep eet dlee Sen pts d PipraOrpariCpes.. 426-2. eu ee 
Height to sternal notch................... Diverclite Ula ented, 2) ii eat nnn 
pat WialAseaec ira thi cites Sut of gee lad 
(Donen Se Se eae IN SLOT DIE DTCSS, . cccemee ety See 
1ST LO aT Aree. ok See A ee eile Lae as eee sweat SO UNA 7 ara atc ci abi i cuca id a ea 
Height (biaur. l-bg.).2 i BED OT eg ier egies een 
FACE: PLIVEOIS DIOR iw aie eis soe nEmee/ 
Meno LUN, NASON Tel me, Mio ot. Rosa i Ae eerie rad aeek Aaees Fee ee RS a 
BASTIEN UO) PUTO es esses net tans PIOEO OT Ue TW iks open iee has noes sere 
Bresdthsbizy@omiy.. 2.0 SOU rey ITEMS oe eee eae nts ean eye ees 
DACRTC MA AsO OR SUIEE Eeoeen en ey eek eh Mee FLOCR Ett te wenimn ah herd ae ate AUC eee) 
LDP NT ONS) arg 070 30,8 BUS ae at tae eee agi tis is hats Aas a eG Co ey Niece MCR NoMNe 
Nose: PHYSIOLOGICAL: 
Length 40 nasion ss 222... Puloe: Sad ie ee oe ein at ee ee 
PSPenGty eee ee HEADITADION 2 ue rt oe a ee 
Mouth: SL GMAPCra ures. oe ee eee 
BOP RA OE eae rec he an ws rake PLitiesoh Maye aoe ee, See 
Left Ear: State of health (see tongue).............. 
Bre 4 A a eae tt Ses ea ee Strength: 
SCRE et ee eT 2 Pressure TiGgih one. a), ee 
[alien dear. tes: 
MISCELLANEOUS: 
Chest: 
Breadth at nipple height.......... TEETH: 
Depth at nipple height.............. ee ioe Gp. Lk, 2 
V4] 812) ty ae pe en. 2 ae be cee aN 
Left Hand: ]1._—i. 1, 2, pm. 1, 2 
be 27S FO eeelineen acee COt Ubi ies oe Ist 
LAS E798 Pe Moe Sih the ty See eee r.—1i. 1, 2, c, pm. 1, 2 
lOWeTas po a te eee 
Left Foot: 1—i, 1, 2, pm. 1, 2 
as le pee re ce r.—i. 1, 2, c, pm. 1, 2, 
m.1,2,3 
RPeue en ge er cee, et ee 2 IV a} S05) wha Lard oe eM econ PA 
—i. 1, 2, c, pm. 1, 2, 
Left Leg: Wales, a 
Ep hal 1). ekeeue ira see. olen Sate See 2d 
Pei. Fea) Ce pMiaky 2, 
Melos; o 
Pet Ole OU Rate tee eee LOWER: soto ee hee 


(With shoes and dressed, but without 
outer garments.) 


5 


66 ALES HRDLICKA 


MEASUREMENTS OF THE BODY 


The directions to be given will for the most part strictly follow those 
of the International Agreements, as far as these go; but for the benefit 
of the student there will be a number of explanatory changes in the 
wording, and also a number of additions, all of which will be plainly 
indicated. 

Stature—The stature is to be measured on the anthropometric 
plane of Broca, or an equivalent strip or tape (see under Instru- 
ments), with a square. The subject stands erect, on level surface, 
with heels together, and with these, the buttocks and the shoulders 
applied to the vertical (wall, rod, tree, etc.) on which is fastened 
the anthropometric plane, while the head is held so that the visual 
as well as the biauricular axis are horizontal. The occiput will fre- 
quently touch the vertical in this position, but it is not obligatory 
that it should do so. The arms hang in natural position. The height 
of the vertex is ascertained by means of the square. Observer stands 
slightly to the left of the subject, manipulates the square by hold- 
ing it lightly in the left hand, and reads the measurement on the right 
margin of the plane. The square is applied to the head horizontally 
twice or three times in succession, to facilitate correct reading, and 
with sufficient impact to feel the skull resistance. Care must be exer- 
cised not to make an error in the reading. 

The method as given here differs slightly from the Geneva agree- 
ment in that it provides, through the application of the heels, buttocks, 
and shoulders to the vertical, of a strictly standardized posture which 
will also serve for other measurements. ‘There is no appreciable dif- 
ference in the measurement by the two methods if taken with sufficient 
care; but the modification here given assures a greater uniformity of 
results as well as a greater ease of procedure. It is moreover strictly 
speaking the method of Broca!; and it is the method of the Geneva 
International Agreement for sitting height (q. v.). It would be in- 
congruous to take the total height in one standard position and the 
sitting height in another. 

Should the development of the buttocks interfere, as may occa- 
sionally happen in women, the subject is not forced against the vertical, 
but allowed to stand slightly in front of the same. 

2. Height to the Supra-sternal Notch.—Instruments: A level and a 
plumb, or the anthropometer. The level has already been described 


1 Instructions, etc., 119. ‘‘ Le vertex est le point culminant de la téte, lorsque le 
sujet debout et adossé au mur regarde droit devant lui. La hauteur du vertex n’est 
autre chose que la taille du sujet. On la mesure en faisant descendre la grande 
équerre sur sa téte.”’ 


ANTHROPOMETRY 67 


(p. 55). In the absence of the specially made tube, use may be made 
of a flat piece of wood, such as the ordinary tongue depressor, which 
is applied edgewise into the notch. Method: Subject retains position 
held during measurement of stature. The level is pressed into the 
deepest part of the sternal notch, brought to and supported in hori- 
zontal position, the lead is dropped to the floor or ground with the 
string just clearing the abdomen, the cord is pinched by the thumb and 
forefinger nails at the lower edge of the level, the subject steps aside, 
and the measurement is read off against the vertical plane. 

With the anthropometer the measurement is taken direct, with the 
instrument in front of the subject. 

3. Shoulder Height.—This is an unsatisfactory measurement, on 
account of the frequency of a faulty holding of the shoulders. It 
should be taken on both sides, record being made either of both the 
measurements or of their mean. Landmarks: the upper surface of the 
outermost part of the acromion. Method: Similar as with measure- 
ment from sternal notch. 

4. Span.—The horizontal distance from tip of medius to tip of 
medius, in maximum extension of the arms. Instruments: A vertical 
molding (or wall) against which to apply one of the fingers, and a 
broad horizontal scale on which to take the measurement (see 
under ‘‘Instruments’’). Method: The subject whose stature and 
perhaps also sternal or shoulder height have just been measured, ex- 
tends one of his arms horizontally until the medius is applied to the 
provided vertical, and raises the other arm into a similarly horizontal 
position. The observer applies his thumb nail to the medius of the 
free arm, and watching the subject, as well as the continued applica- 
tion of the medius of the arm first raised to the vertical, he directs 
him or her to expand the arms as much as possible. As the expansion 
takes place the thumb of the observer is pushed along the scale, until 
the maximum isreached. That the latter has been reached can usually 
be told from the attitude and expression of the subject. The arms are 
then dropped and the measurement indicated by the nail of the ob- 
server’s thumb is read on the scale. The whole procedure is quite 
simple. Normality of the parts entering into the measurement is of 
course essential. 

5. Sitting height—The Geneva Agreement stipulates as follows: 
“Sitting height.—The subject sits on a horizontal and resisting seat 
about 30 to 40 em. high (this height being proportionate to the stature 
of the subject); the knees are flexed; the dorsal aspect of the trunk is 


68 ALES HRDLICKA 


to make contact with a vertical plane, or with the anthropometric 
rod at two points, viz., in the sacral region and again between the 
shoulder blades; the axis of vision is horizontal. The height of 
the vertex above the surface of the seat is to be measured.” 

The directions here given need no alteration. The height of the 
bench for American adults, whose average stature is superior to that 
of most other Whites, should not be lower than 45, and may con- 
veniently be 50 cm. (see under ‘‘Instruments’’). In taking the 
measurement special care must be taken in each case that the sacral 
region be well applied to the vertical. The occiput in this position 
generally touches the vertical plane. 


MEASUREMENTS OF THE HEAD 


Length.—The maximum glabello-, occipital diameter of the vault. 

Instrument: The spreading compass or calipers (compas d’épaisseur, 
Broca or Hrdliéka). 

Landmarks: Anteriorly—the most prominent point of the glabella; 
posteriorly—the most prominent point on the occiput as shown by 
the maximum determinable spread of the branches of the compass 
(Intern. Agr.). 

Method: According to older methods (see Bertillon, Martin), the 
end ‘part of each branch of the instrument was held in one hand, as in 
measuring the face. For measurements of the head this is somewhat 
clumsy. A better method is to hold the compass so that its butt 
(or joint) rests on the hypothenar eminence of the hand, the two 
proximal parts of the branches reposing respectively on the ball of 
the medius and on the second joint of the forefinger, while the thumb 
holds the instrument to the hand. The observer applies the thumb 
and middle finger of his left hand, in contact, to just below the glabella, 
places the free end of the left branch of the compass on these 
fingers so that the point touches the glabella, and applies the left 
forefinger over the end. This gives a ball-and-socket arrangement 
which enables the measurer to hold the point of the left branch of 
his compass steadily over the glabella without fear of displacement. 
This branch of the instrument needs no further attention. The right 
hand is now moved partly around the proximal part of the compass, 
so that the two branches rest on the ball of the fourth and on the 
second joint of the middle finger, and are held and controlled by the 
ball of the thumb and the ball of the forefinger. This hold permits 
not only an easy handling of the instrument with perfect control, 


ANTHROPOMETRY 69 


but affords also a great facility for regulating the pressure. The 
free end of the right branch is then applied over and somewhat to 
one side of the median line of the most prominent part of the occiput, 
and is moved up and down in saw-tooth fashion from side to side of 
the occiput until the maximum length is encountered. The eyes 
watch only the scale. The ease of manipulating the instrument 
when handled in this manner is very gratifying. (Fig. 11.) 





Fia. 11. Method of holding instrument in measuring the length of head. 


Breadth—The greatest transverse diameter in horizontal plane 
which can be found on the vault by the spreading compass (compas 
d’épaisseur, Broca or Hrdlicka). 

Landmarks: Determined solely by the maximum breadth of the 
skull above the supra-mastoid and zygomatic crests (Intern. Agr.). 

Method: The instrument is held as in first position for measuring 
the length, and this position is retained. The left hand is placed 
lightly on the top of the head of the subject, assisting in bringing the 
latter into the most convenient position for taking the measurement; 
the instrument is applied horizontally somewhat above what appears 


70 ALES HRDLICKA 


to be the maximum breadth, and is moved in a zigzag way antero- 
posteriorly, descending and again ascending by zigzags, until the 
maximum breadth is found. The eyes watch only the scale. It is 
necessary to repeat the movements in an ascending and possibly once 
more in a descending direction, until the observer is positive that the 
maximum breadth has been ascertained. 





Fic. 12. Method of holding instrument in measuring the breadth of head. 


Height.\—The height from the middle of the line connecting the 
floor of the auditory canals to bregma. 

Instrument: The spreading compass of Hrdliéka (Fig. 10). 

Method: The instrument is held by the right hand just below the 
joint. The head of the subject being steadied by the left hand, one 
branch of the instrument is gently introduced into the left ear as far 
as the guard permits, and the same is followed with the right ear. 

1The Monaco Agreement stipulates that the height of the head be taken from 
‘“‘the superior border of the auditory opening” to the ‘“‘vertex’’; but no satisfactory 


method for taking the measurement is offered or has ever been devised. The method 
here described has been practiced by the author since 1898 and found effective. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 71 


The compass is then slightly raised to assure penetration as far as 
the guards allow, is taken hold of a short distance above the scale by 
the left hand, allowed to sag down by its own weight, and held in posi- 
tion. The ulnar side of the hand that holds the compass should for 
greater steadiness repose on the head of the subject behind the in- 
strument. The scale of the compass is now brought as near as possible 





Fig. 13. Method of holding the instrument in measuring the height of the head. 


over the bregma, the spread of the branches of the compass is noted 
on the scale, the distance from bregma to lowest part of the scale is 
carefully ascertained by the rod of the sliding compass, and the 
operation is completed. All that is now necessary is to read off on a 
previously prepared scale the total height from the base line of the 
points of the compass to the lowest part of the scale of the same at 
the spread observed in the subject at hand, and to deduct from this 
the distance between the bregma and the scale. Special care must 
be exercised that neither of the branches (particularly that in the right 
ear) slip out of the meatus. (Fig. 13). 


ie ALES HRDLICKA 


This method is readily learned and causes the minimum of incon- 
venience to the subject (particularly if the points of the instrument are 
warmed in water or by the breath of the observer before introduction), 
and with due care it gives results which vary within less than 3 mm. 
The time required is scarcely more than the average time for ascer- 
taining the head length. The external portions of the floor of the 
meatus, while not as perfect landmarks as could be desired, give with 
this method and instrument, in the author’s experience, results that 
are more satisfactory than those obtained by any other method or 
instrument so far devised for taking this important measurement of 
the head. The preference of bregma to the vertex for the superior 
‘point de repére,’ is in accordance with the Geneva Agreement; 
which stipulates two heights of the vault and both to the bregma. 


MEASUREMENTS OF THE FACE. 


The face in the living can hardly be considered without including 
the forehead, which contributes in an important way to the physi- 
ognomy. In consequence certain measurements of the “‘face”’ include 
the frontal part of the head up to the line of the hair. 

The essential measurements on the face are its anatomic and 
physiognomic heights, and its greatest breadth; but generally it is 
also advisable to include the smallest frontal and the bigonial diameter. 

Instrument: The spreading compass (Broca or Hrdliéka). 

Preliminaries: The location of the nasion, and the middle point 
of the hair line (crinion), may with advantage be marked beforehand by 
aniline pencil. 

The nasion should correspond as closely as possible to the ana- 
tomical nasion, 2.e., the mid point of the naso-frontal suture. In a 
certain proportion of subjects this point may be felt by the observer’s 
finger nail or the point of a pencil; but in the majority we must rely 
on knowledge of its location derived from extensive observation on 
skulls and dissecting room material. It is always situated above a 
horizontal line connecting the two inner canthi. 

The crinion is the mid point of the hair line, where this forms a 
regular arc. Occasionally a more or less marked V-shape extension 
of the hair downward in the median line will mar this are, in which 
case it will be requisite to extend the lateral parts of the are until they 
connect and mark the crinion in the middle of this line. But little 
difficulty will be experienced in this connection. 

Face Length, Anatomical.—The distance from the menton (the 
lowest point in the middle of the bony chin), to the nasion. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 73 


Method: Hold large spreading compass so that the points repose 
on the balls of the two forefingers. Ascertain with the projecting 
part of the left forefinger the lowest part of the chin, apply to it the 
point of the compass, and hold in position by the forefinger. Open the 
instrument sufficiently, apply little finger of the right hand to the head 
of the subject for support, bring the right forefinger with the end of 
the right branch to the forehead a short distance above the nasion, 
and without moving the skin up or down apply the point of the in- 
strument carefully to the nasion, at the same time reading the scale. 

Height to Crinion.—Method: Without removing the hands or 
instrument after the measurement to nasion has been secured, the 
upper branch of the compass is elevated until it touches the crinion, 
and the measurement is read off. 

The manipulation is simple and the values of the two measure- 
ments are easily carried in mind until they can be recorded. 

Face Breadth—The maximum bizygomatic diameter. 

Landmarks: The most widely separated points on the external 
surface of the zygomatic arches (Intern. Agr.). 

Method: Hold instrument as in measuring facial heights. Bring 
over zygomatic arches, feel with forefingers their maximum convexity, 
apply points of instrument with sufficient pressure to feel resistance of 
the bone, and pass forward and backward in up and down zigzags, 
watching the scale; repeat process in opposite direction, and perhaps 
once more forward and backward, until the maximum breadth is 
ascertained. 

Diameter Frontal Minimum.—The minimum frontal breadth, or 
the shortest horizontal diameter between the two temporal crests 
on the frontal bone. 

Instrument: Compas d’épaisseur, Broca or Hrdli¢ka. 

Method: Hold instrument as for measuring the facial heights and 
breadth. Search with forefingers above the lateral angular processes 
of the frontal for the deepest part in the curve of each temporal line; 
when found slip the points of the forefingers behind the lines, apply 
points of compass to the same, and read measurement. 

Diameter Bigonial_—Instrument: Compas d’épaisseur, Broca or 
Hrdliéka. 

Landmarks: The gonions or points of the angles of the lower jaw. 
The separation of the angles is measured by applying the compass 
to the most prominent points on their external surface. 

Method: Hold instrument in same way as for the other facial 


74 ALES HRDLICKA 


measurements; ascertain most prominent points of angles with tips 
of forefingers, slip these a little behind, apply points of compass to 
the points just ascertained and read off the measurement. 

Height of Forehead.—The height of the forehead is the difference 
between the menton-nasion and the menton-crinion diameters. 


MEASUREMENTS OF THE NOSE, MOUTH, AND EARS 


Nose: Length—The length (or ‘‘height’’) of the nose from the 
nasal septum where this joins the upper lip, to the nasion (Intern. 
Agr.). 

Instrument: The sliding compass. 

Method: Apply left hand over the head of the subject in such a way 
that the thumb is a short distance above the nasion. Place the fixed 
branch of the compass against the thumb, and with this bring gently to 
touch the nasion. Push movable branch of compass to point where 
the line of the septum joins the skin descending from the nose to the 
upper lip, remove instrument and read measurement. 

In cases where no point of demarkation between the upper lip 
and nasal septum exists it will be necessary to press slightly on the 
lower branch of the instrument in the line of the septum, until the 
requisite point is reached. ‘The student bears in mind that his object 
is to ascertain the correct length of the nose alone. 

Breadth—The maximum normal external breadth of the nasal 
alee, determined without the exertion of any pressure. 

Instrument: The sliding compass. 

Method: Hold instrument in right hand, with thumb on the sliding 
branch and points upward. Place dorsal parts of the third and 
fourth fingers of the left hand on the subject’s chin, with the forefinger 
free; apply distal branch of compass to your forefinger, and with this 
acting as a support bring to the most prominent part of the right 
nostril; push sliding branch gently to most prominent part of left 
nostril, turn instrument slightly forward and backward to ascertain 
that both branches are touching and not compressing the skin, re- 
move and read measurement. 

Remarks.—The position of the left hand of the observer in connection 
with both measurements on the nose is of considerable importance and 
assistance, assuring a safe, quick and accurate measurement, and 
giving the subject a sense of confidence. In measuring the breadth of 
the nose, care must be taken that the nostrils of the subject are not 


ANTHROPOMETRY cy f° 


dilated; a more or less unconscious dilatation will take place in some 
subjects when the measurement is to be taken. 

Mouth.—Breadth: The distance between the angles of the mouth 
at points where the mucous membrane joins the skin, with mouth 
naturally closed, without tension. 

Instrument: Sliding compass. 

Method: Apply forefinger of left hand to the chin and the medius 
below the chin. Place fixed branch of instrument on forefinger, 


§$ sass 





Fig. 14. Length and breadth of ear. 


apply to right corner of the mouth, bring point of sliding branch to 
left corner (without exactly touching either), remove instrument and 
read measurement. 

Left Ear.—The left ear for a right handed observer is much easier 


76 ALES HRDLICKA 


to be measured and should therefore be the ear measured on all occa- 
sions. The two measurements to be taken are the greatest length, 
and the greatest breadth at right angles to the length. Both are 
taken with the sliding compass (Fig. 14). 

Length Maximum.—Landmarks: Superiorly the highest point on 
the border of the helix; inferiorly the lowest point on the lobule. The 
rod of the compass should be held parallel to the long axis of the ear; 
use no pressure (Intern. Agr.). 

Method: Place third, fourth and fifth fingers of left hand above the 
ear, apply fixed branch of compass to ball of the medius, bring it 
gently with this to the uppermost part of the ear, push sliding branch 
to lowermost point of lobule, holding instrument parallel to the long 
axis of the ear, and read measurement. 

Breadth.—Distance between two lines parallel to the long axis 
of the ear, one of these lines being tangent to the anterior, the other 
to the posterior border of the helix (Intern. Agr.). 

Method: Place three fingers of left hand above the ear as for pre- 
ceding measurement. Apply fixed branch to ball of the free thumb, 
and with this bring to the anterior limit of the cartilage of the helix, 
which can be done most readily by applying a little pressure on the 
point of your instrument so that this sinks in front of the helix. Hold 
the fixed branch parallel to the long axis of the ear, bring sliding 
branch to the outermost part of the ear, and read measurement. 


MEASUREMENTS OF THE TRUNK AND LIMBS 


Breadth of Shoulders.—The most satisfactory breadth is that be- 
tween the great tuberosities of the humeri, which are easily ascertained 
in all subjects. 

Instrument: Large sliding compass (Topinard, Martin, or Hrdlitka). 

Method: Apply branches of compass to points indicated with suffi- 
cient pressure to feel the unyielding resistance of the bone, and read 
measurement. The arms in natural pendent position. 

Diameters of the Chest—The most satisfactory level for measuring 
the diameters of the chest is that at the height of the nipples in men, 
and at the corresponding height of the upper border of the fourth 
chondrosternal articulation in women. The developmental and racial 
variations at this point appear to be better marked than they are 
in any other part of the thorax. 


ANTHROPOMETRY er 


Instrument: The large sliding compass (Topinard, or Hrdliéka). 

Method: Transverse diameter: Subject stands in natural, easy, 
erect position. The forearms are flexed at about right angles, and the 
arms are lifted forward and upward to about 30 degrees from the body. 
They are directed to be held limp without any tension, and the ex- 
aminer satisfies himself that there is no tension by lightly taking hold 
of the forearms and moving the arms slightly up and down. The 
object of the position is on one hand to relax all the thoracic muscles, 
and on the other to permit the application of the instrument. The 
same position in every respect is preserved for the antero-posterior 
diameter. 

The large compass is now applied to the chest in such a way that 
its rod lies directly over the nipples (or corresponding line in women), 
the fixed branch is pressed against the thorax until it meets with 
the resistance of the ribs, and the movable branch is applied repeatedly 
to the opposite side of the thorax, with equal pressure, during inspira- 
tion and expiration, until the medium between the two can be arrived 
at. It is the medium which is recorded. The instrument is held so 
that its plane is at right angles to the vertical plane or axis of the 
thorax. 

The antero-posterior diameter is taken so that the fixed branch 
of the compass is applied to the nipple line, the rod of the instrument 
to the ribs on the left side, and the movable branch to the posterior 
part of the thorax, the instrument being held again at right angles to 
the vertical axis of the chest. Here also we take repeated measure- 
ments until the medium between normal inspiration and expiration 
is ascertained, and this is recorded. 

Measurements of the Limbs.—It is advisable to measure the left 
hand, left foot, and left leg, partly because of greater convenience, 
partly because in a large majority of persons the left limbs are less 
affected by work, and possibly also, at least in the case of the hand, by 
injuries. 

Left Hand. Length—The International Agreements have nothing 
on the measurements of the hand or foot; but measurements of both 
are indicated in Topinard’s Eléménts etc., 1184-35, as well as in 
Martin. Those practiced by the author may be defined as follows: 

The length of the hand in the living extends from the middle of 
the line connecting the proximal limits of the thenar and hypothenar 
eminences, to the end of the medius, with the hand in full extension. 

Instrument: Sliding compass. 


78 ALES HRDLICKA 


Method: Take a sheet of blotting paper, apply to points just given 
(which if indistinct can easily be ascertained by flexing the hand upon 





Fig. 15. Length and breadth of hand. 


the forearm), mark mid-point with aniline pencil, and secure measure- 
ment with hand in full extension. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 79 


The easiest way to take the measurement is by placing observer’s 
left hand under that of the subject with thumb close to the point from 
which the measurement is to be taken; applying the fixed branch of 
the compass to the observer’s thumb and with this to the marked point 
at the wrist; seeing to it that the hand is fully extended, and bringing 
movable branch into light contact with the point of the medius. The 
rod of the compass is held parallel to the wrist-point—medius line. 

Breadth.—The most expressive breadth of the hand is that across 
the palm, at nearly right angles to the length. 

Instrument: The sliding compass. 

Method: With hand in full extension, apply fixed branch of compass 
to the angle formed by the thumb and the radial side of the palm, and 
if necessary compress skin lightly until the point on which the instru- 
ment rests is in straight line with the radial surface of the forefinger and 
palm. The rod of the compass lies applied across the palm, and the 
moving branch is brought to a point on the ulnar side of the palm 
midway between the basal (metacarpo-phalangeal) groove of the little 
finger and the line limiting the hypothenar eminence. 

The most satisfactory way of taking this measurement is for the 
observer to place his left hand under that of the subject so that the 
tip of his medius is just below the junction of the thumb and palm, 
and his thumb is on the palm itself. The point of the movable branch 
of the compass is now applied to the ball of the observer’s medius, is 
brought with this to the required position in the palm-thumb angle 
of the subject’s hand, and the fixed branch is brought slowly to the 
requisite point of the ulnar side of the palm. This latter point may 
be marked beforehand, but its location can be easily estimated. The 
breadth thus obtained is nearer the maximum, more logical, and 
easier to take, than would be that at strictly right angles to the length 
and is much more characteristic than the breadth across the meta- 
carpo-phalangeal articulations (Fig. 15). 

Left Foot. Length—Length maximum, parallel with the long axis 
of the foot. 

Instrument: The large sliding compass. 

Method: The easiest way to secure this measurement accurately 
is to direct the subject to place his left foot upon the bench (usually 
that which has been used for determining the height sitting), without 
pressure, putting all his weight on the right limb. The large sliding 
compass is then applied so that its rod lies parallel with the long axis 
of the foot, its fixed branch touches the heel, and its movable branch is 
brought lightly to the most distal part of the longest toe. 


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16. Length and breadth of foot. 


Fiaq. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 81 


Breadth: The maximum breadth of the foot, at right angles to the 
length. 

Instrument: The large sliding compass. 

Method: Apply fixed branch of instrument to inner side of foot 
parallel with its long axis, and bring movable branch lightly against 
most prominent part on the outer side of the foot (Fig. 16). 

Girth of Calf—Maximum circumference of calf. Measurement 
useful racially, and also in general for comparison of musculature. 

Instrument: Anthropometric tape. 

Method: The left foot is placed on a bench, as for measurements 
of the foot itself, and it is brought forward so that the leg forms a 
little larger than a right angle with the thigh, to insure relaxation of 
all muscles. The tape, held between the thumb and fore-finger of 
each hand, is then applied somewhat above what appears to be the 
maximum bulge of the leg, and is brought snugly around the leg but 
not tightly enough to cause an impression, and a mental note is 
made of the measurement. The tape is then moved, with a side to 
side motion, slightly lower and the measurement is observed again; 
and the process is repeated until the maximum girth has been de- 
termined. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIVING 


As in the case of measurements so in that of visual observations 
there is possible a great range of detail, which on special occasions and 
in studies of single organs may be fully justifiable and even necessary, 
but which has no place in work of more general, routine nature. Thus 
in the case of the nose there is a possibility of making interesting de- 
tailed notes on the height and nature of the septum, on the characters 
of the point, on the shape of the nostrils, on the stoutness and other 
characteristics of the root; in the case of the eyes, on the detailed 
characteristics of each lid and canthus, with almost endless details 
on the coloration. All this, however, is impossible under the usual 
stress of work both in field and in the laboratory. Here again, as in 
the case of the measurements, we must subordinate whatever is not 
essential to the number of subjects, and the possibility of prompt 
elaboration of data. But there are certain minima which the observer 
ought not to pass if his work is to be fairly rounded out, and it is on 
these that attention will here be concentrated.! 

1 For greater minutiz the student may be referred especially to the outlines of 
the anthropometric work on Austria’s prisoners carried on during the war by Rudolf 


Péch, published in 1915-17 in the Mitt. Anthrop. Ges., Wien. 
6 


82 ALES HRDLICKA 


Important features in this connection are the order of procedure, 
and especially the mode of recording. The procedure should be as 
far as possible logical, the eye passing from organ to organ in the most 
natural order; and the recording is best done in definite, steadily ad- 
hered to abbreviations, which are recorded like measurements in 
columns and can eventually be summed up and analyzed in much the 
same manner. 

Another important subject is the characterizing of certain observa- 
tions, such as for instance the thickness of the lips, size of the eye 
aperture, quantity of beard, etc. To properly describe such varia- 
tions we are in absolute need of definite, well-known standards or 
media, and the most available and intelligible standards to us of the 
white race are those of our own, the white people. To become properly 
acquainted with these ‘“‘means’” must therefore self-evidently be 
one of the main aims of the worker in physical anthropology. 

All observations should be made in good and as far as possible 
even (northern) light, never in dusk or in direct sunlight; and at the 
most effective visual distances for the student. And of course, where 
possible, the observer will use well-known artificial standards. 

The following classification of characteristics agrees in essentials 
with that of anthropologists in general, differing only in a few details, 
as indicated by prolonged experience on varied races. For the 
sake of brevity it is given in a somewhat schematic form, which will 
need but little explanation. 

As to abbreviations, the student is free to adopt such as will best 
suit him. The author has thus always used the easily made and read 
sign of + for “medium,” ‘‘average,” “‘normal,” for which we have 
no other symbol. Terms often called for, such as ‘‘slight’’ (sl.), or 
“slightly”? (sl.), ‘‘some”’ (sm.) or ‘‘somewhat” (sm.), ‘‘moderate”’ 
(mod.) or ‘‘submedium”’ (subm.), “‘considerable”’ (cons.), “‘marked”’ 
(mk.), or ‘‘pronounced”’ (pron.), and “excessive” (exc.), are easily 
understood by all and easy to record. 


COLOR OF SKIN 


Remarks: Observations best taken on chest, back, or upper portion 
of arms. Color standards useful on dark races, but of very limited 
utility with whites. Student should bear in mind that pathological 
conditions, particularly those which affect the blood, may alter for 
the time being the color of the skin, even in very dark individuals; 
and also that even dark skins may be perceptibly changed by sunburn 
or long exposure to the sun. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 83 


DESCRIPTIVE TERMS 


Class of Color. Shades. 


Wuite—florid—light—medium—brunet—dusky—light brown. 

YELLOw—pale yellowish or sallow—tawny (brownish yellow)—dusky 
yellow. 

Brown—light—medium—dark—chocolate (solid). 

Biack—brown black—bluish black—greyish black—ebony black. 


EYES 


What is generally observed about the eyes is the direction of the 
palpebral fissure or eye-slit, a presence of epicanthus, and the color 
of the iris. Any other feature found to characterize an anthropo- 
logical group should of course be noted. The color of the conjunc- 
tiva is more of age than racial significance. 


COLOR OF EYES 


Remarks: Good soft light and close attention are necessary. In 
Whites, and particularly Americans, a large majority of eyes are 
mixtures, or blends, of the blues and browns, and both parental 
colors may be represented, the brown aggregated about the pupil, in 
lake or spots, the mostly more or less modified blue outside. In rare 
cases the brown may be present in the form of a wedge-shaped seg- 
ment; and the two eyes may be of a different shade. Eyes change in 
color from infancy to childhood and again during senility; and in 
mixed populations the change may even be from brownish to grey or 
bluish or vice versa. Mixed shades may also change perceptibly with 
physical condition and mental state of subject. In recording, the 
student may either restrict himself to noting the prevailing color 
(1.e., that of the more distal zones of the iris), or record both this as 
well as the presence of the brown color or spots about the pupil. 


EYESLITS 
Direction: horizontal; 


oblique LTO eer pale moderately; 


{ ext. canthi pa slightly ; 
markedly. 


‘““mongolic” fold (epicanthus). 
EYE COLORS 
Classes: 
Blue — light (‘‘forget-me-nots’’), medium, rich blue, slate blue. 


84 ALES HRDLICKA 


Subclasses 

Green—often merely “‘greenish’’; commonly associated with 
some brown; frequent in United States. 
Gray—common among northern Slavs. 
Brown—light, medium, dark, very dark. 

Black—really extreme of brown, appearing black, in Negroes. 

Conjunctiva — bluish, pearly white, yellowish, dirty or reddish 

yellow. 


HAIR 


In quantity, the hair may be “normal” or ‘‘medium,” “thick” 
(term in vogue among men) or ‘‘rich”’ (term in vogue among women 
and applying to length as well as profusion). 

In character, it may be naturally “straight,” “wavy” (slightly or 
markedly), ‘“‘curly’”’ (slightly, markedly), ‘‘frizzly,” ‘“‘wooly,”’ or 
‘“‘peppercorn’”’ (en rouleux). 


HAIR-COLOR 


Remarks: Among lighter Whites hair color, like eye color, changes 
with growth, as a rule darkening from infancy onward; it also varies 
perceptibly according to the state of blood and in certain pronounced 
mental conditions of the subject, and may present parts (particularly 
postero-inferiorly), strands, or tufts of more or less different shade. 
The color recorded is the prevailing one, with special note, if advis- 
able, on variations. In gray-haired subjects record original color, as 
far as ascertainable, as well as degree of greyness (‘‘few gray hairs,” 
“some,” ‘“‘abt. 44, 4, 4%, most, nearly all, all gray’). In dark races 
grayness rarely reaches pure whiteness and the hair will be yel- 
lowish. A special shade that may be difficult to classify should be 
described in observer’s own words. Hair color may also be affected 
by exposure to sun, washing with alkalies, or by staining; what will 
be recorded will, of course, be the natural color. 


HAIR-COLORS 
Classes: 
Blonds—Pigmentless, flaxen, straw, dull yellow, golden yellow; specials. 
Intermediarres—Light brown, ashy, medium brown, medium reddish- 
brown. 
Brunets—Dark brown, near black. 
Blacks—Rusty-black, bluish-black, coke-black, black. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 85 


Reds—Light brownish-red (sandy red), medium brownish-red, brick- 
red, saffron red, chestnut red (or auburn); specials. 


MUSTACHE AND BEARD 


Remarks: The mustache (in particular) and also the beard, fre- 
quently differ in density, color, and waviness, from the hair of the 
head. (The pubic hair also frequently differs, but with that the ob- 
server in general is not concerned.) The mustache is often more 
scanty, or coarser, and in non-brunet Whites is commonly of a more 
reddish color than the hair on the scalp, while the beard is often 
more wavy. Both mustache and beard offer some interesting differ- 
ences from the hair of the scalp in greying. Observations on mus- 
tache and beard among many peoples are regrettably made difficult 
by the practices of depilation or shaving, while those on hair are 
occasionally made difficult among Whites by extensive calvitia 
and by various artifices. 


DESCRIPTIVE NOTES, MUSTACHE AND BEARD 


Quantity: scarce—medium—thick. 
short—medium—long. 


Color: Character: 
EYEBROWS 
Color: Quantity: scanty—medium—bushy—connected. 
FOREHEAD 


Height: low—medium—high. 
Breadth: narrow—medium—broad. 
Slope backward: none—slight—moderate—pronounced. 


SUPRAORBITAL RIDGES 


Development: Imperceptible—traces—slight—moderate—medium— 
pronounced—excessive—supraorbital arch. 


NASION DEPRESSION 


Character: shallow—medium—deep; narrow and impressed; wide; 
combinations. 


86 ALES HRDLICGKA 


NASAL BRIDGE 


Character: Straight 
slightly 
Concave + moderately 
markedly 
slightly 
Convex + moderately 
markedly 
Concavo-convex (wavy). 


NASAL SEPTUM 
Inclination: Horizontal 
slightly 
Directed upward 4 moderately 
markedly 
slightly 
Directed downward + moderately 
markedly 


MALARS 


Prominence: none—slight—medium—above medium—pronounced. 
Size: small—submedium—medium—large. 


ALVEOLAR PROGNATHISM 
Grade: none—small—medium—above medium—pronounced. 


LIPS 
Thickness: thin—medium—above medium—thick. 


CHIN 
Prominence: submedium—medium—pronounced. 
Form: ordinary—square—pointed. 
Note: What is commonly called receding chin is generally so only 
in appearance. 
ANGLES OF LOWER JAW 


Prominence: submedium—medium—prominent. 


NECK 
Size: thin—medium—thick. 
Length: short—medium—long. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 87 


BODY AND LIMBS 


General state: thin—lank—medium—very muscular—plump—obese. 
Asymmetries: 


EARS 
Marked peculiarities: 


FINGERS AND TOES 


Length: short—medium—long. 
Position: normal—standing apart—crowding. 
Peculiarities and Anomalies: 


BREASTS 


(in women who have had no children) 
Shape: conical—intermediate—hemispherical. 
Size: small—medium—large. 
Anomalies: 


PHYSIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 


Pulse: Subject sitting, at rest, and not soon after a meal or during 
fasting, after a long walk or other strenuous exercise, after or under 
excitement. A good method is for the observer to count by quarters 
of a minute, repeating until right count is ascertained. 

Respiration: Same general rules as for pulse. Count immediately 
after taking pulse and without attracting subject’s attention (impor- 
tant). Count by minutes. 

Temperature: Same general rules as for pulse. Taken invariably 
under the tongue, the thermometer being introduced before we begin 
to take our visual observations and count the pulse; these give 
plenty of time for a correct record with even a slow thermometer. 

Remarks: In connection with pulse, respiration and temperature, 
record time of day, and also invariably the condition of the tongue. A 
coated tongue often tells of temporary or chronic derangement which 
modifies the temperature, pulse, and perhaps even respiration. No 
records of subjects with coated tongue should be included in the 
eventual analysis into the ‘‘normal”’ series. 


HAND PRESSURE 


Dynamometric observations may well be restricted to pressure 
with each hand, leaving out traction, lifting strength, etc. The object 


88 ALES HRDLICKA 


of the observer is to secure the maximum effort in each hand and he 
must stimulate the subject to a maximum exertion. As a rule at 
least two tests are to be made with each hand, after which fatigue 
ensues. 

Combined with these tests may be made an inquiry into right- and 
left-handedness, but this is not as simple as may be thought at first 
and will require some special preparation. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Other physiological observations, such as those on blood-pressure, 
lung capacity, acuity of perception and response, etc., may be added 
to the above, but are scarcely fit for a general routine examination. 


TEETH 


The examination as to the condition of the teeth fits best perhaps 
at this place. We examine for state of eruption; for abnormalities 
(crowding, impaction, etc.), and anomalies (persistent teeth of first 
dentition, congenital absence, supernumeraries, etc.); also for decay. 
Morphological observations are best made the subject of special 
study. 

Combined with examination of the teeth may be that of the palate, 
but it is preferable to make a special study also of that structure. 


WEIGHT 


Except in recruiting and army camps, we are obliged, or find it 
advisable, to weigh our subjects with a certain amount of clothing, 
the weight of which may readily be approximated and eventually 
subtracted. The author finds it most convenient to weigh his sub- 
jects in their ordinary clothing and shoes, but without coats, wraps 
or hat. 


1See Beeley (A).—Left-handedness: Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1919, u, No. 4, 
389-400. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 89 


SKELETAL PARTS: THE SKULL 


The art of measuring the skeletal parts differs in many respects 
from that of measuring the living’and is, in fact, to a degree a field 
of itsown. It is, moreover, a particularly attractive field, for we deal 
here with specimens that are not masked by other tissues, that can be 
handled cleanly and easily, and that are mostly completely at our 
disposal for reference or additional observation. 

The most interesting and important part of the skeleton is naturally 
the cranium, and this has received from the beginnings of anthropology 
the most assiduous attention. The preoccupation of anthropologists 
with the skull,! particularly since the repeated discoveries of the re- 
mains of early man, has in fact been such as to overshadow the study 
of the rest of the skeleton, with the result that methods relating to 
research on the long and other bones are with some exceptions less 
developed and standardized than those on the skull. Yet these 
secondary skeletal parts are a mine of information of anthropological 
interest, and as time goes on they cannot but receive more and more 
attention. ‘The time for a selection of the best methods of measuring 
as well as observation on the more important of these parts is at hand, 
and in the final section of this series an attempt will be made in this 
direction. The present section is devoted mainly to the cranium. 


CRANIOMETRY 


Efforts at a development of a scientific system of cranial measure- 
ments and observations date from well before the beginning of the 
nineteenth century. The most serious and at the same time successful 
steps in this direction were, however, those of Samuel G. Morton in 
Philadelphia in the late thirties of that century, of Anders Retzius in 
Sweden (1842-1860), and especially those of Paul Broca in France, 
from the early sixties onward. Broca’s system, which was eventually 
comprised in the “Instructions craniologiques et craniométriques”’ 


1See bibliographies in ‘International Catalogue of Scientific literature,” in 
Martin’s “Lehrbuch d. Anthropologie,” in author’s “Physical Anthropology in the 
United States” 8°, Philadelphia, 1919), and in the Catalogue of the Library of the 
Surgeon General, U.S. A. 


90 ALES HRDLICKA 


(8°, Paris, 1875), is, with some modifications and additions, in use to 
this day. 

The most noteworthy contributions to the subjects of craniometry 
and craniology since Broca are those of Topinard,! Turner,? Schmidt,’ 
Torok’, Welcker,® and finally, Martin®; but due credit belongs to 
many earlier as well as later well known workers, such as Blumen- 
bach, de Baer, Lucae, Meigs, Soemmering, Wentzel Gruber, Quat- 
refages, Hamy, Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Flower, Davis, Thurman, 
Hovelacque, Virchow, and others, not to mention the most recent or 
still living, such as Hervé, Ranke, Schwalbe, Gustaf Retzius, Sergi, 
Manouvrier, Matiegka, Le Double, Boule, Giuffrida-Ruggeri, etc. 

The total results of all this work on the skull are not only a great 
mass of data from all parts of the world, but also an elaborate and 
profuse technique of measurements. Many of these measurements 
are now, however, of little more than historical value, having been 
replaced by others or abandoned. Of what remains, the main part 
has been standardized by the International Anthropometric Con- 
vention of Monaco. 

The cranial measurements that will be dealt with here are essentially 
those of the Monaco Agreement; but some of those included in the 
Agreement have since become quite obsolete, while in a few instances 
it is now possible to make useful additions, so that a simple reference 
to the Agreement would not be sufficient. The blanks to be given 
resemble in essentials those employed on the living (pp. 63-5). 
For brevity, repetition of definitions, etc., will be avoided, author’s 
notes being restricted to such explanations as will assist the student. 
A number of measurements included call for special instruments which 
will be described in that connection. No agreement has yet been 
attempted as to the relative importance and definition of descriptive 
characters, and what will here be given in that line is of a more or less 
tentative nature. 

Before beginning with either measurements or descriptive terms, 
however, it will be necessary to give due consideration to several 
preliminary procedures, some of which are of considerable importance. 

1 “Flements d’Anthropologie générale,” 8°, Paris, 1885. 

2 Challenger Reports, Part 29, London, 1884. 

3 “ Anthropologische Methoden,” 12°, Leipzig, 1888. 

4 “Grundziige einer systematischen Kraniometrie,” 8°, Stuttgart, 1890. 

5 Valuable contributions in anthropological periodicals, particularly the Archiv 


fiir Anthropologie. 
6 “Lehrbuch der Anthropologie,” 8°, Jena, 1914. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 91 


Preparation of Specimens.—Before a series of crania (or bones) 
can be submitted to measurement or examination, the specimens must 
be not only well cleaned, but also carefully repaired, which is interesting 
work and at times calling for not a little ingenuity. For repair, about 
the most suitable cement is a thick paste made from fish glue, or from 
Page’s liquid glue, with plaster-of-paris and pigment. A box of dry 
sand in which to place the skulls or bones while the cement is setting 
will also be required. 

The specimens, furthermore, must be numbered and catalogued, 
otherwise there would inevitably be confusion. The method of 
numbering is immaterial, so long as the numbers do not duplicate 
others in the collection. The number, tribe, locality, and sex are 
marked with indelible ink in the most convenient location, which in 
the skull is perhaps the antero-inferior angle of the left parietal; and 
all specimens of one kind in the collection are marked in the same 
place. If the bone is scaly or too rough, a small parallelogram is 
covered neatly with oil paint and the mark made on this. 

Sexing..—In adults, the determination of sex, from the skull alone, 
while generally offering few difficulties to the well-trained observer, 
is not equally easy in all races, or in all individuals. 

A typical masculine skull differs in practically every feature from 


1 The most important contributions to this subject (outside of the various text- 
books on Anatomy and Anthropology) are: 

Bartels (P.), ‘‘Ueber Geschlechtsunterschiede am Schidel,’”’ Thes., Berlin, 1897. 

Dureau (A.), “Des caractéres sexuels du crane humain,” Rev. d’Anthrop., 1873, 
II, 475. 

Ecker (A.), ‘“‘Ueber eine charakteristische Eigentiimlichkeit in der Form des 
weiblichen Schidels und deren Bedeutung fiir die vergleichende Anthropologie,” 
Arch f. Anthrop., 1866, I, 81. 

Manouvrier (L.), ‘Sur la grandeur du front et des principales régions du crane 
chez ’homme et chez la femme,” C. R. Assoc. Franc. p. Avance. d. Sc., 1882. 

Mantegazza (P.), ‘‘Dei caratteri sessuale del cranio umano,” Arch. p. Antrop., 
1872, II, 11.—“Studii di craniologia sessuale,”’ Arch. p. Antrop., 1875, V, 200. 

Mobius (P. J.), ‘‘ Ueber die Verschiedenheit mannlicher und weiblicher Schadel,”’ 
Arch. f. Anthrop., 1907, N. F. VI, 1. 

Panichi (R.), ‘Ricerche di craniologia sessuale,’’ Arch. p. Antrop., 1892, XX, 49. 

Pittard (E.), Les segments crdniens chez l’homme et chez la femme.’”’ Arch. d, 
Sc. Phys. & Nat., 1899, 1900.—‘‘Quelques comparaisons sexuelles de crAnes anciens 
de la vallée du Rhone (Valais),’’ L’ Anthrop., 1900, XI, 179.—“‘ Comparaisons sexuelles 
dans une série de 795 cranes de brachycéphales alpins,”’ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Lyon, 
1910, XXVIII, 119.—‘‘ Analyse et comparaisons sexuelles de quelques grandeurs 
du crane et de la face chez les Tsiganes,” C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris, 1911, T. 152, 208. 

Welcker (H.), ‘‘Geschlechtseigentiimlichkeiten des Schidels,”’ Arch. f. Anthrop., 
1866, I, 120 et seg. 


92 ALES HRDLICKA 


the typical feminine one. It is larger on the whole and in all its 
components, it is heavier, and all its muscular insertions as well as 
other features are more strongly marked or developed. But in no 
human group is there any regular, precise line of demarcation between 
the male and female characteristics, taken individually or even col- 
lectively. In every lot we find male skulls which in some or all of their 
features are less masculine than the average, and similarly there will 
be female skulls that in some or all of their parts approach the mas- 
culine. Instead of a sharp dividing line we have interdigitation and 
continuity, as a result of which in certain cases the sexual identifica- 
tion of a specimen with all our efforts remains uncertain. In rare 
cases, even, a female skull may show more pronounced masculine 
characteristics than some of the less well developed male crania, and 
vice versa, which may lead to errors in classification. 

On the whole it may be said that an experienced and careful ob- 
server will have little if any difficulty in correctly identifying over 
80 per cent of the crania, with which there is neither the lower jaw nor 
any other part of the skeleton to assist him; that this proportion will 
approximate 90 per cent where a well-preserved lower jaw is present; 
and that it will reach over 96 per cent where we have the whole skele- 
ton. But out of each hundred there will still remain one or two skele- 
tons which, even though complete, show such indefinite sexual char- 
acteristics that it will be impossible to identify them as either male or 
female with certainty. 

Given a skull for sexual identification, the observer notes first the 
size of the vault as well as that of the face; a large size speaks normally 
for a male and a small size for a female. ‘The features observed next, 
and in the order named, are the supraorbital ridges, the mastoids, the 
zygome, the occipital crests, the lower jaw, the palate and the teeth, 
the facial ‘‘physiognomy,” and the base of the skull. 

The supraorbital ridges are on the average decidedly more developed 
in the males than in the females. If we should characterize them as 
we do in practice by the terms “traces,” ‘‘slight,’’ ‘‘moderate,” 
‘‘medium,” ‘‘pronounced,” and ‘“‘excessive,” the male skulls will show 
ridges from moderate to excessive, while the female skulls will be 
restricted to those of from traces to moderate. Pronounced or exces- 
sive ridges do not occur in females, nor are ridges that could be char- 
acterized as only “‘traces”’ to be found in adult males. But we may 
“have “slight’”’ ridges in a male subadult or even adult. 

The mastoids may be ‘‘small,”’ ‘‘moderate,”’ ‘‘medium,” “‘large,’’ 


ANTHROPOMETRY 93 


or “excessive.” Male mastoids generally range from medium to 
large, female mastoids from small to medium. Small mastoids do 
not occur in males nor do large or excessive mastoids occur in 
females. 

The zygome may be “‘slender,” “‘moderate,”’ “‘medium,” “strong,”’ 
or ‘‘massive.” They range in males from medium to massive, in 
females from slender to medium. 

The occipital crests when well or markedly developed as a rule 
indicate a male. In females they range from ‘‘submedium” to 
“absent.” 

The lower jaw in the male shows on the average greater size, thick- 
ness, and weight as a whole, a higher body throughout, a higher symphy- 
sis especially, a broader ascending branch, an angle less obtuse than 
in the female, and strong condyles. <A lower jaw of moderate size and 
strength, with a low symphysis, a rounded chin (a square chin points 
to male sex), a relatively low body, only moderately broad ascending 
ramus, delicate or but moderately strong condyles, and an angle of 
more than 125°, may safely be diagnosed as feminine. 

The palate in the male skull is usually larger and appreciably broader, 
and the teeth in the male are on the average perceptibly larger than 
those in the female. 

The “phystognomy”’ of the face, or the impression that the face 
with the lower jaw in position makes upon the experienced observer, 
is a characteristic of considerable importance in sex determination. 
The average male skull presents a decidedly more masculine physiog- 
nomy than does the average femalecranium. Thisis due to a combina- 
tion of factors which should be briefly enumerated. The forehead in 
the female skull is usually more vertical than in the male, and smoother; 
the borders of the orbits in the average male skull are dull, in the aver- 
age female sharp; the nasal process of the frontal, the nasal bones, the 
malars, and the upper maxillae as a whole, are larger and stouter in the 
male than in the female; and the height of the upper alveolar process, 
between the nasal aperture and the front teeth, is greater in the male. 
The nasal aperture, moreover, is less high, often relatively somewhat 
broader, and more delicately moulded in the female. All this, together 
with the sexual characteristics of the lower jaw, when present, gives 
the face a certain expression which is of great help in identifying the 
sex of the skull. Unfortunately the lower jaw is often missing, and 
the upper face damaged or affected by senile changes, all of which 
diminishes or disturbs the sexual expression. 


94 ALES HRDLICKA 


Thickness of the vault, alone, is of no decisive value in sexual identi- 
fication, for while the bones of the male are on the average slightly 
thicker, individual thick and massive vaults are encountered in both 
sexes, especially among primitive peoples. 

The base of the skull presents a complex of structures which as a 
whole show stronger development and larger dimensions in the male 
than in the female. The foramina, too, are in general larger in the 
male. 

Sexual Characteristics of Other Skeletal Parts—As in the sexual 
identification of the skull we are often obliged to consult the rest of the 
skeleton, if at hand, the principal sex determining characteristics of 
the latter may well be dealt with in this connection. 

In detailed examinations we find that every bone in the body offers 
certain sexual differences. The most important skeletal parts for 
sexual identification aside from the skull are, however, the pelvis, the 
long bones, and the larger of the remaining parts. 

As to the pelvis,! the important sexual characteristics which it 
presents may conveniently be shown as follows: 


Male Female 
Subpubic arch........... V-shaped Broader (approaching U-shaped) 
with diverging branches 
Ischio-pubic rami....... But slightly everted Markedly and characteristically 
everted 
Symiphiyais st Pk Ph alae High Lower 
Obturator foramina..... Large Smaller, more triangular 
ABLES ci ele es Large Smaller 
Greater sciatic notch. ... Rather close and Wide and shallow 
deep 
LE eee i ees Meee High, more upright Lower, more flaring in upper portion 
Sacro-iliac articulations. . Large Smaller, more oblique 


1 See (besides the modern textbooks on Anatomy, and Obstetrics) : 

Emmons (A. B.), “A study of the variations in the female pelvis,” etc. Biometrica, 
1912, IX, 33-57. 

Hennig (C.), ‘‘Das Rassenbecken,” Arch. f. Anthrop., 1885, XVI, 161-228 (Bibl.). 

Runge (G.), “Shape of female pelvis in different races,” 8°, St. Petersburg, 1888; 
80 pp. 

Sergi (G.), ‘‘L’indice ilio-pelvico o indice sessuale nel bacino delle raze umane,”’ 
La Clin. Ost., 1899, I; 7pp. 

Thompson (A.), “The sexual differences of the foetal pelvis,” J. Anat. and Physiol., 
Lond., 1899, XX XIII, 359-380. 

Verneau (R.), ‘‘Le bassin dans les sexes et dans les races,” 8°, Paris, 1875, 156 pp. 

Waldeyer (W.), ‘‘Das Becken.” 8°, Bonn, 1899, 600 pp. 

Zaaijer (T.), ‘Der Sulcus preauricularis ossis ilei,”’” Verh. k. Akad. Wet., Amster- 
dam, 1893, 23 pp. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 95 


Preauricular sulcus...... Infrequent More common and better developed 
CPU aes. feat Goo bes Relatively high and Shorter and broader, more obliquely 
narrow set, less curved in upper portion; 
sacro-vertebral angle more promi- 
nent 
Pelvis asa whole....... Strong, heavy, Less massive, smoother 
marked muscular 
impressions 
RSP ees ten Heart-shaped More circular (or elliptic), more 
spacious 
MPURIDELVIG.g Path ete se Relatively smaller More oblique, shallow and spacious, 
: less encroached upon by ischiac 
spines 


However, none of the above characteristics are wholly constant, and 
there are pelves so intermediate that a correct diagnosis of sex from 
them alone cannot be made with certainty. 

As to the long bones, those of the male are generally larger and heavier 
than those of the female and have more pronounced muscular ridges, 
tuberosities and impressions; but the most important and striking 
sexual differences lie in their articular extremities, which in the bones 
of the male are in general both absolutely and relatively larger than in 
the female. A femur or a humerus with a small head or condyles 
cannot be masculine, neither can bones with relatively large heads or 
condyles be feminine. ‘These differences are of great help in sexing 
the skeleton or individual bones. However there are also intermediary 
grades of development which might leave us uncertain if we had the 
long bone only.! 

As to the remaining larger bones of the body, the most important 
for sexual identification are the sternum, scapule, ribs, the spine as a 
whole, some of the vertebrae such as the atlas, axis, and the fifth lumbar, 
the patella, the calcaneus, and the first phalanx of the great toe. 
In general they all show larger size, greater weight and stronger 
development of muscular attachments in the male; and they present 
various individual features which differ more or less in the two sexes, 
such as the relatively longer manubrium in the female, a larger glenoid 
cavity in the male, etc. Their utilization for sexual identification 
stipulates naturally a special acquaintance with these various bones. 

1 Consult Dwight (Thos.), ‘‘Range and Significance of Variation in the human 
skeleton,” Bost. Med. and Surg. J., July, 1894, 73 et seq.—‘‘ The size of the articular 
surfaces of the long bones as characteristic of sex,’”’ Am. J. Anat., 1904, IV, 19-31. 


Dorsey (Geo. A.), “‘A sexual study of the size of the articular surfaces of the long 
bones in aboriginal American skeletons,” Bost. Med. and Surg. J., July 22, 1897. 


96 ALES HRDLICKA 


Even the smaller bones, such as those of the tarsus, may help in this 
connection. 

In addition to the differences due to the general development of 
bones, various parts of the skeleton occasionally present features as 
for example perforation of the septum in the humerus, third condyle on 
the femur, a teres major process of the scapula, etc., which do not 
occur with the same frequency in the males as in the females; but as 
they may occur in both, their presence or absence in individual cases 
is not of decisive value. Furthermore, all the bones of the skeleton 
when studied in lots will show characteristic sexual differences of 
anthropometric nature, in absolute dimensions as well as indices; but 
except in extremes these again are of only secondary value in the 
case of individual bones.! 

In subadults, determination of sex is mostly hazardous, nevertheless 
there are a certain proportion of cases in which it is possible. But 
as the age descends the difficulties of identification rapidly increase, 
until when we reach puberty and below, it becomes in general very 
risky, if not impossible. 

Estimation of Age.—A correct estimation of the age of a skeleton is 
of a much greater medico-legal than anthropological importance; but 
by mastering the details, for which our science is favorably situated, 
the anthropologist may occasionally be of substantial aid to legal 
medicine. 

For the anthropologist himself it generally suffices to determine 
whether the skull or skeleton is subadult, adult, or senile, and his main 
criteria for these purposes are the state of the basilar suture, that of 
the epiphyses of the long bones, the stage of dentition, the condition 
of the teeth and alveolar processes, and the state of the sutures of the 
vault of the skull. 

Of all the marks that the adult stage of life has been reached, the 
most handy and reliable is the occlusion of the basilar (basisphenoid) 
suture; and the value of this sign is furthermore enhanced by the 
rarity with which abnormal processes affect this articulation. But 
the basi-sphenoid articulation may be opened mechanically, through 
posthumous changes in the bones or through violence, and the student 
must be on the lookout not to mistake such a condition, which to the un- 
aided eye may simulate very closely the normal suture, for the latter. 

The epiphyses of the long (and other) bones are normally all united 
with their diaphyses by the end of the twenty-fifth year. The fol- 


1See author’s “ Physical Anthropology of the Lenape,” etc., Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. 
Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 97 


lowing figures give approximations to the exact time of synostosis in 
the different cases, according to modern Anatomies. They again can 
be of but a restricted use to the anthropologist. 


OSSIFICATION (COMPLETED) 


Year Year 
ReMMIMTOPEURITOL LT Gan oe eto tc 20-25 Pe[SEY O01 EGRh ACA Be Si el Real pea ati banc. SN 20-25 
RUUIMOLUB TUNNEL octets ha kts oes 20-25 Clavicle, sternal end............ 25 
WNWere ree. fe snes 18-19 SLEPUUIL. ate Leena See cae 20-25 
Rete SOUL DEL ots. 85. sia cee an 18-20 
lgWert ete ee es 20-22 BRU oles ae re ae mee go es eS 25 
Tibia: UDTIOR Tei Fed iss ely eee meV CPLCDT AG a7) eral ss ics ites 25 
LOWED ia ie i ee cat 18 
PUSS Au cx Mcgee Bre. Acie oY he 18 
Ulna: WONT oes er AL 16 
TOWOTEA Oe ode ese 20-23 Sacrum (union of uppermost seg- 
IDGCIIS) chee ees oer ere 25-30 
PR iee eeUD DEL acts tte aa om tee ek 17-20 
LOWEST Acie Os orcas oe 20-25 Ossa innominata............... 20-25 
RIM Se DUET nem icigachensid ies 22-25 PiAISNCCR Orn he pices a be co. 18-20 
MOWER oe oie eee ees 19-20 


The eruption of deciduous teeth among Whites is generally completed 
before the end of the third, that of the permanent teeth before the 
thirtieth year of life. Among primitive peoples (possibly even 
primitive Whites), the process, at least so far as the permanent teeth 
are concerned, is somewhat speedier, being with some exceptions ac- 
complished by or even before the twenty second year. A full set of 
teeth in a skull is therefore a good sign that adult life has been reached, 
or nearly reached; but an absence of one or two third molars may exist 
in the white, and more rarely even in a primitive man, well into the 
adult stage, and such teeth may fail to appear altogether. The follow- 
ing table gives the periods of eruption of both sets of teeth among civil- 
ized Whites. On account of the length of the period of eruption of the 
individual teeth the data will be also of but limited use. 


ERUPTION OF TEETH, IN WHITES? 


1st Dentition Permanent Dentition3 
Months Years 
Median Incisor, lower.......... 4-8") Pirst: Molar, lower 2.3 2 sis. 4— 7 
Median Incisor, upper.......... 8-11 Firstotolar supper. ase. sae 5- 8 


1See Suk (V.), ‘Eruption and decay of permanent teeth in Whites and Negroes, 
with comparative remarks on other races,” AM. J. Pays. ANTHROP., 1919, II, No. 4, 
352. 

2 After Bean, Bedndf, Cherot, Gray, Matiegka and Suk, Roese, Steiner, Vogel, 
Welcker, etc. 

’ Exact order of eruption of permanent canines and premolars is still slightly 
uncertain. 

7 


98 ALES HRDLICKA 


Months Years 

Lateral Incisor, upper.......... 8-11 Median Incisor, lower.......... 5- 8 
Lateral Incisor, lower.......... 12-15 Median Incisor, upper.......... 5- 8 
First Molar, uppers ae. eee 9-21 Lateral Incisor, lower........... 6-10 
First, Molar lowers. 5% ins dee 12-21 Lateral Incisor, upper.......... 6-10 
Canine Tipper it. cue ca ee 16-24 Anterior Premolar, upper ....... 7-14 
Canines, lowericie seen cee eee 16-25 Canine, lowers... we eee 8-14 
Second Molar, upper........... 20-36 Anterior Premolar, lower........ 8-15 
Second Molar, lower............ 20-36 Posterior Premolar, upper....... 9-15 
Posterior Premolar, lower....... 9-15 

Canine, upper. .o... 5 cae 9-16 

Second Molar, lower............ 10-17 

Second Molar, upper........... 10-17 

Third Molar, lower...'... 15-2 see 15-30 

Third Molar, upper. >. -.2.2eee8 17-30 


The pubic articulation shows important changes with age. 

A valuable indication as to advancing age is furnished to us by the 
wear of the teeth.2 In Whites this seldom commences before the thirty- 
fifth or is marked before the fiftieth year of age, and in many individuals 
of the more cultured classes it may remain slight up to old age; but 
among grain-eating, primitive peoples, such as the American Indians, 
wear may commence even before the adult life has been reached, be 
very marked at fifty, and reach an extreme grade after sixty-five. 
Partial wearing, due to peculiar habits, has of course but little value 
in this connection. 

The obliteration of the cranial sutures has long been relied upon as a 
help in estimating the age of the subject, and is useful when taken 
conjointly with other characters. Under normal conditions, i. e. in 
subjects who have not been affected by rickets or other generalized 
pathological processes, synostosis of the bones of the vault does not 
commence until well after adult life has been reached, and in some 
individuals some or all of the bones of the vault may remain free until 
advanced age. On the average, however, we may expect to find some 
traces of synostosis ventrally about the thirtieth, and dorsally about 
the fortieth year of life. In view of the difficulties of a proper endos- 
copic examination, the dorsal signs of obliteration are the only ones 
with which the anthropologist under ordinary circumstances needs to 
concern himself. The obliteration here may begin in the posterior 


1See Todd (T. Wingate), ‘Age changes in the Pubic Bone,’ Am. J. Phys. An- 
throp., 1920, III, No. 3, 285. 

2See Broca (P.), Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1879, 8. 3, II, 342; Instructions 
craniolog., etc., 1875, 132. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 99 


third of the sagittal suture, or in the distal portions (below the tem- 
poral crests) of the coronal—there are some racial as well as individual 
differences in this respect. A complete obliteration of the coronal, 
sagittal, and lambdoid sutures under ordinary conditions is reached 
only in advanced age, after seventy, and in fact is seldom fully accom- 
plished even then. The temporal articulations, with the exception 
of that with the occipital, are the last to ossify. A complete synostosis 
of all the articulations of the bones of the vault at any age would 
justify a suspicion of some abnormality. With ample experience, 
and taking the condition of the sutures and teeth together, we may 
correctly estimate the age of the adult subject to within, perhaps, ten 
years.! 

As signs of advanced senility, may be named a diminution in weight 
of the skull and bones, with more or less rarefaction of the bone struc- 
ture (particularly in the long bones of the lower limbs and the spine) ; 
extensive loss of teeth and marked absorption of the alveolar processes; 
and disseminated marginal exostoses of the lumbar and other verte- 
brae. This latter condition, although usually looked upon as patho- 
logical, is so common in senile skeletons of all races that it may well be 
regarded as a part of the process of skeletal senile involution, becom- 
ing only secondarily, or through its irregularities and complications, 
pathological. 

In addition to the above the vault of the skull may in advanced age 
occasionally show a more or less marked absorption of the bony tissue 
(diploé) of the parietals above the temporal ridges, with a consequent 
bilateral, antero-posterior depression. The lower jaw may in in- 
stances be reduced to a mere frail shell, with greatly widened angles; 
while the upper alveolar process may be completely absorbed and the 
loss involve even a part of the nasal floor. But these extreme mani- 

1 See in this connection, Dwight (Thos.), ‘‘The closure of the cranial sutures as a 
sign of age,” Bost. Med. and Surg. J., 1890, 389. 

Frederic (J.), ‘‘Untersuchungen ii. d. normale Obliteration der Schidelnahte,”’ 
Z.f. Morph. and Anthrop., 1906, IX, 273; 1909, XII, 371. 

Parsons (F. G.) and C. R. Box, “‘The relation of the cranial sutures to age,” 
J. Anthrop. Inst., 1905, XX XV, 30. 

Pommerol, (J.), “‘Recherches sur la synostose des os du crane,” Bull. Soc. Anthrop. 
Paris, 1869, 8. 2, IV, 502; and Thése, Paris. 

Ribbe (F. C.), “Etude sur l’ordre d’oblitération des sutures du créne dans les 
races humaines,”’ Thése, Paris, and Rev. d’Anthrop., 1885, 8. 2, VIII, 348. 

Welcker (H.), ‘‘Altersbestimmung der Schidel,” Arch. f. Anthrop., 1866, I, 113. 


Zanolli (V.), “Studio sulla obliterazione delle suture craniche,”’ Atti Soc. rom. 
Antrop., 1908, XIV, 13. 


100 ALES HRDLICKA 


festations of senile resorption are of little value as indices of the age of 
the individual in years.! 

Identification of Parts—Given a series of crania, and perhaps other 
bones, for examination, we frequently find that some of the lower jaws 
have become detached from the skulls, and various bones separated 
from the skeletons to which they belong. We may further find 
individual crania, or even larger admixture, of a different type from 
that of the rest of the collection. Our object naturally will be to 
properly fit the stray parts, and segregate the heterogeneous specimens. 
This once more demands considerable care and experience. 

The fitting of the lower jaw to its skull is fairly easy if we have to 
deal with only a few specimens; but in larger collections, and even in 
some individual cases where more or less warping of the lower jaw has 
taken place, the task may be quite difficult. The main guidance of the 
student will be the fit of the teeth, the fit of the condyles, the color and 
mottling of the specimens, and various conditions and peculiarities 
of the teeth. He will find a similar or compensatory wear of the teeth 
in the two jaws of the same individual; a correspondence of more or 
less extruded or unworn teeth (especially the third molar) in one jaw, 
to absence of opposite tooth in the other; a similar staining of or con- 
cretions about the teeth; etc. But there may be anomalies in one 
(especially the upper) jaw for the counterparts of which he would 
vainly look in the other. 

As to other parts of the skeleton, which may be touched upon in this 
place, we can only hope to establish whether or not a certain bone 

1Consult: Allen (Harrison), ‘‘On the effects of disease and senility as illustrated 
in the bones and teeth of mammals,” Science, 1897, V, 289-294. 

Broussé (A.), “De l’involution sénile,”’ 8°, Paris, 1886. 

Féré (C. H.), “Sur lVatrophie sénile symmétrique des pariétaux,” Bull. Soc. 
d’Anthrop., Paris, 1876, S. 2, XI, 423. (cont’d next p.) 

Humphry (C. M.), “Senile hypertrophy and senile atrophy of the skull,” J. 
Anat. and Physiol., London, 1890, XXIV, 598. 

Le Courtois, ‘Modifications morphologiques de la vofite crdnienne osseuse 
suivant l’Age et le type cranien,” Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1870, 8. 2, V, 607-620. 

Pozzi (Senile changes in the skull). Dict. Encycl. d. Sc. Méd., XXII, 492. 

Sauvage (H.), “Note sur l’état sénile du crane,’ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 
1870, 8. 2, V, 576. Also sep., Paris, 1870, 132 pp. 

Smith (G. Elliot), “‘The causation of the symmetrical thinning of parietal bones 
in ancient Egyptians,” J. Anat. and Physiol., London, 1907, XLI, 232. 

Thomas (O.), ““Notes on a striking instance of cranial variation due to age,” 
Proc. Sci. Meetings Zoél. Soc., London, 1886, P. I, 125 pp. 

Virchow (R.), ‘“‘Ueber die Involutionskrankheit (Malum senile) der platten 
Knochen, namentlich des Schiadels,”’ Ges. Abh., 1856. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 101 


belongs to a skeleton in question by its fit with other bones in articula- 
tion, and by resemblances in color, size, shape, muscular insertions, 
processes, and peculiarities, with the corresponding bone of the oppo- 
site side of the body. With the exception of the atlas we are never in . 
a position to absolutely identify a given stray bone, or even a whole 
skeleton, with a given skull. Occasionally we find it difficult to even 
pair or place individual bones; but special features and measurements 
help greatly in this direction. 

Recognition of distinct racial types in a collection, demands especially 
careful procedure. The skull of a typical White, a typical Negro, a 
typical Eskimo, or a typical American Indian, may be readily and 
reliably identified, wherever found by the expert student; and in a 
smaller measure this is also true of some other parts of the skeleton. 
But when it comes to a recognition of crania or bones of mixed-bloods, 
or of closely related racial types, we face considerable uncertainties. 
The safest rule in all cases is for the observer to set aside from his 
series any skull or skeleton concerning the anthropological identity of 
which he is in serious doubt. He will bear in mind, of course, that 
among all peoples there exists in every feature a wide range of normal 
variation. 

Determination of Normality—A normal skull (or a normal bone) 
is that which has not been modified in shape, size, or any other manner, 
mechanically or through disease. 

Mechanically a skull may be modified through injury, artificial 
or accidental deformation in life, or posthumous deformation. 

Deformations through injury are readily recognizable, and in general 
are of small importance to anthropology. But extensive injuries of 
the vault and especially of the face, or injuries followed by serious 
alterations in the bone, may spoil the specimen more or less for 
study. 

Artificial and accidental deformations in life have been dealt with 
previously (pp. 47-8), and the observations made in that connection 
apply essentially also to the skull. The best way to appreciate lesser 
grades of deformations is to pass the hand snugly over the top of the 
skull from before backwards; the practiced sense of touch is even 
more reliable in these cases than the sense of sight, and will be of much 
assistance. 

Posthumous deformations are fortunately not frequent, but must 
nevertheless be reckoned with, and that above all in imperfect skulls 
and with the lower jaw. The degree of such deformation, with or 


102 ALES HRDLICGKA 


even without fracture, is sometimes remarkable. As a result the 
vault of a skull may assume extreme steno-dolichocephalic or plagio- 
cephalic appearance, and the arch of the lower jaw be considerably 
compressed—conditions which could easily deceive the inexperienced.! 
Posthumous deformations of the long bones may simulate curvatures; 
in other parts they are immaterial. 

Deformations caused by disease? are most commonly those of rickets, 
or hydrocephalus. Microcephaly, akromegaly, diffuse osteoporosis, 
and leontiasis ossea, each represent or may produce marked alterations 
in the shape, size, weight, and individual features of the skull. But 
recognition of these conditions when well developed offers no difficulties. 
The bones of the skeleton may be altered through dwarfism, cretinism, 
giantism, acromegaly, syphilis, inflammations, tumors, osteomalacia, 
tuberculosis, and above all, as already mentioned, by rachitis. 


MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKULL 


As for measurements on the living, so for those on the skull, the 
observer needs a well-lighted place and one where he will be least 
disturbed. He will need ample table space, which, however, may in 
part be improvised with boards. He should have at hand a camera, a 


1 See Tarenetzky (A. J.), Postmortem alterations and damage of skulls (in Russian) 
Proc. Anthrop. Sect. Milit.-Med. Acad. St. Petersb., 1895, I, 19. 

2 See Backman (G.), ‘‘ Ueber die Scaphocephalie,”’ Anat. Hefte, H. 112, Wiesbaden, 
1908, 219-270 (with extensive bibliography).—‘‘Ueber Bathro- und Clinocephalie,”’ 
Ibid., H. 140, 1912, 495-571 (Bibl.). 

Bogtstra (J. N.), ““De Schedel met ingedrukte Basis,’”’ Leiden, 1864, 44 pp. 

Broca (P.), ‘Instructions craniologiques, etc.,’’ Paris, 1875. 

Davis (J. B.), “On synostotic crania among aboriginal races of man,” Natuurk. 
Verhandl. d. Wet. t. Haarlem, 1865, XXII, 59 pp. 

Frassetto (F.), “‘Appunti sulla scafocefalia patologica,’” Attt Soc. Rom. di Antrop., 
1905, XI, 18 pp.—‘“‘Appunti sulla trigonocefalia,”’ Jbid., 7 pp.—‘‘Appunti sulla 
‘oxicephalia,’”’ Atti Cong. Natur. Ital., 1907, 8 pp. 

Grawitz (P.), “Beitrag zur Lehre von der basilaren Impression des Schidels,”’ 
Arch. f. pathol. Anat., LX XX, 449-474. 

Huschke (E.), ‘Ueber Craniosclerosis totalis rhachitica und verdickte Schidel 
iiberhaupt,”’ 4°, Jena, 1858. 

Knox (R.), “‘The cranium,” Contr. to Anat. and Physiol., repr. fr. London Med. 
Gaz., 1842-3, II, 6-9. 

Manouvrier (L.), “Etude craniométrique sur la plagiocéphalie,”’ Bull. Soc. 
d’Anthrop. Paris, 1883, VI, 526-553. —, and E. Chantre, “‘La dolichocéphalie 
anomale, etc.,’’ Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Lyon, 1886 (repr. 14 pp.). 

Pommerol (F.), ‘‘Recherches sur la synostose des os du créne, considérée an point 
de vue normal et pathologique chez les différents races humaines.’”’ Thése, Paris, 
1869, 116 pp. 

Virchow (R.), Gesam. Abh., 1856. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 103 


stereograph or some other form of large drawing apparatus, and a 
mounted prism (‘‘camera lucida’”’). He will need a suitable stuffed 
leather or canvas ring as skull support. And, as in work on the living, 
he will need properly prepared blanks (fig. 18, p. 119). 

The specimens to be examined are separated first according to kind, 
then according to sex, and are then arranged by numbers. All of 
this facilitates work. 

The blanks should be based on the same general principles as those 
for measurements and observations on the living (see p. 63 et seq.). 
Separate blanks are required for the skulls and for each kind of bone. 
To save work these blanks may be printed; or they may be prepared on 
good sized sheets marked in squares large enough to readily accom- 
modate the records either in figures or in abbreviations. Sample 
blanks are given on the following page. 

Selection of Measurements.—The same general rules that apply in 
this respect to the living (p. 61) apply also to the skull and rest of the 
skeleton and need not be repeated here. The skeletal collections, how- 
ever, are for the most part fully and continuously at our disposal, so 
that they may be used again and again, serving for a series of studies 
besides that the object of which was a general description. The 
student may thus in cases require but a single measurement, or a 
special observation on a single feature of a skull or a bone, and he will 
prepare his scheme to suit the occasion. 

When the object is a general description of a series of crania (or 
skeletons), the observer will naturally endeavor to show first those 
features which are of the greatest importance from the standpoint of 
race or group; and these are usually the size, shape, and peculiarities 
of the specimen as a whole, and in its main parts. In the case of the 
skull, he will therefore measure the principal dimensions of the vault, 
with its capacity; the main dimensions of the face, lower jaw, palate 
and teeth; and take notes on the form of the vault, face, nose and 
orbits. He will add such visual observations as may complete in all 
essential points the picture of the specimen which he wishes to transmit 
so that this may be properly conveyed to his fellow workers and used 
incomparison. The concrete object of the work, as here touched upon, 
should not be forgotten in the maze of details. A list of measurements 
and observations used for these purposes by the author, is here given: 

Instruments.—Craniometry, as well as osteometry, has a series of 
its own instruments. The small sliding compass (c. glissiére), the 
regular spreading calipers (c. d’épaisseur), and the anthropometric 








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ANTHROPOMETRY 105 


tape, are the same as for measurements on the living; but in addition 
the student will need an outfit for measuring the skull capacity; one 
for drawing; a Broca’s mandibular goniometer; a transparent goniom- 
eter; and instruments for special purposes, such as the occipital goniom- 
eter, small sharp pointed calipers, an endocompass, curved brass 
probe, etc. For measurements on other bones of the skeleton he will 
need, in addition, the standard osteometric board with a block, a 
pelviphore, and apparatus for measuring the torsion of the humerus. 
With a few exceptions, these appliances are described and illustrated 
in Broca’s ‘‘Instructions Craniologiques et Craniométriques”’ (Paris, 
1875); in Topinard’s “Eléments d’Anthropologie Générale” (Paris, 
1885); in Martin’s ‘‘Lehrbuch der Anthropologie” (Jena, 1914); 
and in Mathieu’s, Collin’s, and Hermann’s Catalogues of anthropo- 
metric instruments. As far as additional description or remarks may 
be called for, they will be made most suitably in connection with the 
individual measurements. 

Landmarks.—Before proceeding to the description of methods, it 
will be useful to give a list of the landmarks on the skull and their 
definitions. We may here conveniently draw on Topinard’s and 
Martin’s textbooks and on Cunningham’s and other modern Anato- 
mies, which include lists of this nature; but it may be of some advan- 
tage to give the terms in alphabetical order, and in a few instances 
to supplement the definitions. 


Alveolar Point (or Prosthion).—The term ‘‘alveolar point”’ has a long 
priority of usage and no valid reason is apparent why it should be 
changed. It is the lowest point of the upper alveolar arch, be- 
tween the median incisors. Broca defined it as the lower ex- 
tremity of the intermaxillary suture, but occasionally the bone 
on one side or the other projects slightly beyond the suture, so 
that the above definition is preferable. 

Asterion.—The point of meeting of the temporo-parietal, temporo- 
occipital and lambdoid sutures. 

Basion.—The middle of the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. 

Bregma.—The point of junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures. 

Dacryon.—The point of junction of the lachrymo-maxillary, fronto- 
maxillary and fronto-lachrymal sutures. 

Glabella—A point midway between the two supraorbital ridges. 

Gonion.—Point of the angle formed by the ascending branch with the 
body of the lower jaw. 

Gnathion.—See Menton. 


106 ALES HRDLICKA 


Inion.—The most prominent point of the external occipital protu- 
berance. (Now of secondary importance. In some specimens 
the protuberance may be absent; rarely it may be double with 
a depression between; and in instances it may be wholly re- 
placed by a depression.) 

Lambda.—The meeting point of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures. 
(Often displaced by Wormian or other intercalated bones.) 

Maximum Occipital Point.—The point on the squamous part of the 
occipital most distant from the glabella. 

Menton (‘Point mentonniére,” “Gnathion’’).—The lowest point in 
the middle of the bony chin. 

Nasion.—The median point of the naso-frontal suture. 

Obelion.—A point on the sagittal suture on a line with the parietal 
foramina. (When both foramina are absent, the point may be 
estimated by comparison with other skulls.) 

Ophryon.—The central point of the smallest transverse diameter of 
the forehead, measured from on temporal line to the other. 


(Obsolete.) 
Opisthion.—The middle of the posterior margin of the foramen mag- 
num. 


Pogonion.—The most prominent point of the bony chin. 

Pterion.—The spheno-parietal (or fronto-temporal, when that form 
exists) articulation. 

Subnasal Points.—The lowest point, on each side, on the lower border 
of the nasal aperture, 7. e., the lowest points anteriorly of the two 
nasal fossae. (If simian gutters are present, the subnasal points 
may be located on the lines limiting anteriorly the floor of the 
nasal cavity, or their location may be impossible.) 

Stephanion.—The point where the coronal suture crosses the temporal 
line. (Obsolete.) 

Vertex.—The summit of the cranial vault. 


METHODS. 


As with measurements on the living, so with the skull and 
the rest of the skeleton, our foremost and most binding authority 
are the International Agreements (q. v., p. 50 et seq.). But as in 
that case so here the directions may in places be amplified so as to aid 
the student and prevent misconceptions. More or less obsolete 
measurements, on the other hand, may well be excluded, for the object 
of this treatise is to deal with the essential parts, rather than with the 
entire large field, of anthropometry. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 107 


THE VAULT 


Maximum length: The maximum glabello-occipital diameter of the 
vault. Instrument: c.e.,! any pattern. 

Method: As specified by International Agreements (p. 14) and on the 
living (p. 68). 

Maximum breadth: The greatest transverse diameter of the vault 
above the mastoids and roots of zygomae. Instrument: c. e. 

Method: As specified by I. A. (p. 14) and on living (p. 69). 

Basion-bregma height.—c. e. 

Method: Place left forefinger in foramen magnum, press ball of finger 
lightly against anterior border of the foramen, apply one point of 
compass so that it rests on the lowermost point of the border in the 
middle and against the finger, apply other point to bregma, and read 
measurement. Or, apply point of right branch of compass to bregma 
and bring point of left branch to basion. 

Remark.—The maximum height of the vault is less desirable than 
the basio-bregmatic, because used by fewer observers, and on account 
of the not infrequent thickening and ridging of the bone in the sagittal 
region. 

Thickness: Thickness of left parietal, 1 cm. above and along the 
squamous suture.—c. é. 

Method: Introduce one branch of compass into the cranial cavity, 
apply to anterior part of the lower portion of the parietal approximately 
1 cm. above the squamous suture, bring other branch in contact with 
the bone externally, and pass backwards at about the same distance 
from the sutures, watching the scale of the instrument. Record 
observed minimum and maximum. These give a mean which is 
useful for comparison, and which must be taken account of in estimates 
of skull capacity from external dimensions. 

Minimum frontal diameter.—c. e. or c. g. Landmarks and method 
as given by the I. A. (p. 16). 

Capacity.—This measurement, corresponding closely to the volume 
of the brain, is one of considerable importance, and as it is also beset 
with difficulties it demands special attention. 

An ideal method of obtaining the capacity would be by some liquid, 
water or mercury, which could be easily and directly measured; 
but attempts at such a procedure have met thus far with unsurmounted 
difficulties due to the porosity of the bones, the numerous canals and 
foramina, and the sharp processes on the inside of the skull. 

1 Compas d’épaisseur. 


108 . ALES HRDLICKA 


The various older methods of measuring cranial capacity may be 
segregated into five groups, namely: 

1. The'skull is made impermeable and after that filled with some 
liquid, preferably water, which is then weighed or measured; or the 
water is forced into a thin rubber bag until it fills with this the entire 
skull cavity, after which the liquid is measured. These methods, 
employed by Broca, Schmidt, Matthews, etc., yield good results, but 
are too complicated or tedious for ordinary use. 

2. The skull is filled with sand or other substances, and this is 
weighed, the result giving a basis for calculating the capacity. This 
method, used especially by some American anthropologists of the 
last century, was not sufficiently accurate, and soon became obsolete. 

3. The skull is filled with small, rounded seeds, beads, shot or other 
substances, and the contents are then measured (Tiedemann, Busk, 
Flower, etc.). The filling or the measuring (or both) is aided by cer- 
tain manipulations (tilting, tapping, etc.), but, except the measuring 
vessels, no implements are required. The method in its numerous 
modifications is comparatively easy and has other advantages, but 
the results are mostly not as accurate as desirable. 

4. The method invented and regulated by and named after Broca. 
In this procedure the skull is packed with shot, which is then measured; 
but both the filling and measuring are aided by certain implements, 
and every step of the procedure follows definite rules. Among the 
implements used appears a funnel of certain dimensions, which con- 
trols the flow of the shot. The method gives steady results, but can 
not be used with frail skulls, and the capacity obtained is always larger 
than actual, the proportion growing with the size of the skull. 

5. Welcker’s method.! In this procedure, which is the outgrowth 
of the majority of those mentioned, but more directly of that of Broca, 
the most important part is delegated to the funnel, which, by its size, 
controls the measuring of the contents of the skull. The mode of 
filling the skull, so long as efficient and uniform, is immaterial; all that 
is required is that each worker should, with the aid of a standard skull, 
find the exact size of the funnel necessary to give him, in measuring, 
the correct result with his particular method and substance used for 
the filling of the skull. Any rounded seed or substance can be em- 


1 Arch. f. Anthrop., Bd. XVI, 8.1 et seq. E. Schmidt, ‘“ Anthropologische Metho- 
den,” pp. 217-219. A modification of the instruments with a form of a funnel 
stopper has been proposed independently of the author by E. Landau, Intern. 
Centralbl. f. Anthrop., etc., 1903, I, pp. 3-7. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 109 


ployed for the filling, as it is possible to completely fill the cranial cavity 
without using the process of jamming, such as that used by Broca; 
this allows the most fragile skull to be measured without any injury. 
Welcker advocated a funnel large enough to receive all the contents of 
the skull. The contents of the properly filled skull are emptied into a 
separate vessel and then “with one movement is versed into the funnel,”’ 
which is open (not provided with any stopper) and held in position 
vertically and centrally above the graduated receiving vessel. Each 
new series of measurements is controlled by the standard skull. 

The author’s method, in use since 1901,! is a modification of Welck- 
er’s. It is based on the observations, that: (a) The same substance 
poured through the same funnel with the same rapidity will always 
give the same, but with different rapidity will give differing, measures; 
(b) each different substance that can be utilized for the measurement 
of cranial capacity, flowing through a definite size of funnel and with 
regulated rapidity, will give different results from those given by any 
other substance flowing through the same funnel and with equally 
regulated rapidity. (c) Given the same regulation of rapidity of the 
flow, there can be obtained, through the proper selection of funnels 
of different diameter, any measurement, ranging between the minimum 
and maximum of a substance of medium weight and size, by all the 
solid substances employable for filling the cranial cavity. 

Efficient regulation of the flow of the substance used was obtained 
by adding to the funnel a movable stopper. By doing this, it becomes 
immaterial as to with what rapidity, or in what manner, the funnel 
is filled before opening the stopper. This removes at once all source 
of error connected with the emptying of the cranial contents, and 
allows us to dispense with the extra vessel used in measuring the cranial 
contents in Welcker’s procedure. With the funnel closed, the cranial 
contents are poured into it entirely at the convenience of the measurer. 

The apparatus used is shown in Fig. 17. The mode of filling the 
skull is that used by Flower. To measure the contents, they are 
emptied directly, in any way desired, into a combination of a zinc vessel 
(higher than, but otherwise similar to, the standard Broca’s double 
liter) and a removable funnel of 45° dip, with 15 mm. high vertical 
section, which, for my purpose (using old, dry mustard seed) is 20 mm. 
in diameter. Immediately below the funnel is a movable disk which 
acts asits stopper. The disk is attached to a rod which rises along the 
side of the vessel and above its border, and ends in a lever; by using 


1 Described in Science, 1903, 1011-14. 
Published originally in Science, 1903, 1011. 


110 ALES HRDLICKA 


this lever the disk closes or opens the funnel. A number of extra fun- 
nels, of the same dip but of different sizes, are provided, from which to 
choose if another substance than mustard seed is used for the filling. 
The vessel with the cranial contents is placed on the top of a 2,000-c.c. 
graduated glass tube (such as used by Ranke), which is fixed in a vertical 
position. The zinc vessel is provided with a groove in its bottom which 


















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at leenrae 


: \| ! 
t 1 | 


Fie. 17. Hrdli¢ka’s apparatus ‘at measuring cranial capacity. 








exactly fits the border of the glass, the opening of the funnel being 
central. Then the lever is rapidly pushed to either side, opening the 
funnel at once and completely, and the flow left to itself; the level 
which the seed reaches (determined simply by the eye or, preferably, 
the careful aid, without any shocks or pressure, of a niveau finder, such 
as comes with Ranke’s tube) is the skull capacity. The measuring 
part of the capacity determination is thus reduced to a mechanical 
procedure, which not only makes it easy, but eliminates from it practi- 
cally all source of error due to personal equation. What the student 
needs to learn is some method by which a complete and uniform filling 
of the skull can be effected, and then, working with the aid of standard 


ANTHROPOMETRY ry 


skulls, choose the proper funnel; the rest is controlled. The results, 
always with the condition that the proper use is made of the standard 
skulls, are as uniform and as near the reality as can be reasonably 
hoped for.1 

FACE 


Menton-nasion height (or ‘“‘naston-menton diameter’’).—C. e., orc. g. 


The distance from menton to nasion, with the lower jaw in place and 
the teeth in apposition. Note condition of teeth, especially as to 
wear.’ 

Alveolar point—nasion height (or ‘“‘naso-alveolar diameter’’).—C. g., 
Ole. e: 
Landmarks.—See I. A. (p. 16). 
Maximum bizygomatic diameter.—C. e., or c. g. 
Landmarks, etc.—See I. A. (p. 16). 


BASE 


Basio-alveolar diameter.—C. e. or ¢. g. 

Distance between basion and the alveolar point. 
Basion-subnasal point diameter.—C. e. 

Distance between basion and the left subnasal point. 

The triangle basion-alveolar point—subnasal point-basion gives the 
measure of alveolar prognathism, which it is useful to show separately 
from the facial prognathism. 

Basion-nasion.—C.. e. 

Distance between basion and nasion. The angle between the 
basion-alveolar point line and that from the alveolar point to nasion, 
gives the facial angle, which is the expression of the combined alveolar 
and facial prognathism. 

NosE 
Nasal height.—C. g. 
Landmarks: As given by I. A. (p. 16). 
Method: Measure to base of spine, or separately to each subnasal 
point and record the mean. 
Nasal breadth. C.g. 

Landmarks and Method: As given by I. A. (p. 17). 

1 The apparatus is not made for the market, but it should not be difficult for any 
one to have it constructed by following the given directions. 

2 The question as to whether to allow for the wear of the teeth, when this is present, 
or not, has not as yet been decided. Until a definite international rule is established, 


it seems best to record both the actual measurement, and an estimate of what the 
jatter would be with teeth in normal condition. 


112 ALES HRDLICKA 


ORBITS 
Orbital breadth.—C. g. 
Landmarks and Method: As given by I. A. (p. 17). 
Orbital height.—C. g. 
Landmarks and Method: As given by I. A. (p. 17). 


Upper ALVEOLAR Process (‘‘ PALATE’’) 


Breadth.—C. g. 
Length.—C. q. 
Landmarks and Methods: Follow I. A. (pp. 17, 18). 


LowER JAW 
Bigonmac breadth. g. 

The diameter between the most distal points on the external surface 
of the angles of the jaw. 

Method: Use stub branches of the compass. Apply instrument so 
that the rod rests on each side against the ramus ascendens, while 
the branches are brought to the most prominent points about the 
angles of the jaw. 

Angle of lower jaw.—Broca’s mandibular goniometer. 

Method: See I. A. (p. 21). 

Note: The angle differs in general on the two sides of the jaw. The 
logical procedure is to measure the angle on both sides and record 
the mean. 

Height of symphysis.—C. g. 
Height of the body of the lower jaw.—C. g. 
Maximum thickness of the body of the lower jaw.—C. g. 

Landmarks and Method: As given by the I. A. (p. 20). 

Note: To obtain the thickness, measure same on both sides and 
record the mean (if marked difference is found, individual measure- 
ments may also be given). The instrument should be held so that 
the midline of the teeth (antero-posteriorly) corresponds to the 
midpoint of the rod of the compass between the two branches. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Maximum Circumference.—A. t. 

Landmarks and Method: As given by the I. A. (p. 19). 
Sagittal arc.—A. t. 

Landmarks and Method: As given by the I. A. (p. 18). 


ANTHROPOMETRY 113 


Note: If subdivisions of the arc are to be recorded, include only those 
specimens in which there are no intercalated bones at bregma or 
lambda. 


VISUAL OBSERVATIONS 


As in the case of measurements, so in that of visual observations. 
only those will be included in the scheme presented here which are of 
more than casual importance, and which are needed if the observer 
is to transmit, or the student receive, a well-rounded impression of the 
specimen or series examined. On special occasions other observations 
may become of importance and may then be included in the general 
scheme, or be carried out separately. 

A well organized system of observations renders work easier, more 
rapid, and more accurate. ‘The main care to be exercised by the stu- 
dent in this connection is that his standards correspond as closely as 
possible to those generally accepted or understood; and in the report on 
his work he should invariably include brief but clear explanatory 
statements as to his use of terms and standards. In recording, all 
unnecessary details should be avoided. Observation blanks are given 
below. 

The subsequent notes will be of assistance in recording the visual 
observations. They are given in the same order as followed in the 
blanks. In recording, for ‘‘average,’”’ ‘‘medium,” “ordinary,” 
“normal,” use always the sign-+; for other characters use abbrevia- 
tions. Rare features deserve separate and comprehensive description. 


NotTEs 


Pathological: Under this term are included injuries, signs of disease, 
and pathological exostoses, but no morphological abnormalities. 

VauLt: Form from above (Norma superior)—Main types: Ovoid, 
pentagonal, elliptical—short, medium or long; rotund. 


Supraorbital ridges: Traces, slight, moderate; medium (+, feminine, 
masculine); pronounced; excessive; neanderthaloid arch. 

Mastoids: Small, moderate or submedium, medium (+), large, 
excessive; peculiarities. 

Forehead: High, medium (+), or low; vertical, slightly, moderately 
or markedly sloping; eminences reduced to one central, or unduly 
bulging; assymetry (slight or marked); overhanging (hydrocephalus). 
Metopic suture; metopic ridge. 

8 


114 ALES HRDLICKA 


SAMPLE BLANKS: 























CRANIA—OBSERVATIONS 
Sex 
Vault 
Cat. Patho- 
No. logical Shape from Supra- Sagittal Temporo- 
above (Norma; orbital | Mastoids| Forehead| Region Parietal | Occiput 
Superior) Ridges Region 
CRANIA—OBSERVATIONS (continued) 
Sex 
Sutures Face 
ipi fi Prognathism: 
pao ponte Serration dee Anomalies Pterions (a) Facial Orbits 
(0) Alveolar 
CRANIA—OBSERVATIONS (continued) 
Sex—— 
Nose Palate Base 
Lower 
Suborbital | Nasal Borders Peculiar- | Foramen 
Malars Zygome Fosse Bones Spine of Aper- Form ities Lacerum 
CRANIA—OBSERVATIONS (continued) 
Sex 
Lower Jaw Teeth 
Depression of 
a Styloids Special Chin |Peculiarities| Dentition Wear Decay gyre 


Petrous Parts 


ee ee 


ANTHROPOMETRY 115 


Sagittal region; Under normal conditions, from side to side, oval, 
moderately or markedly elevated (keeled). 

Temporo-parietal region: Parietal eminences may be indistinct, 
medium, or prominent; temporal region may be flat, medium, or 
bulging. 

Occvput: Assymetry? Flattening? If undeformed: convex, moder- 
ately protruding, markedly protruding. 

External occipital protuberance: absent, moderate, pronounced, 
double; iniac fossa. 

Temporal crests: State nearest approach to sagittal suture; and 
whether or not extending over the lambdoid suture on to the occipital. 

Occipital crests: Absent, slight, moderate, well developed, pronounced. 

Sutures: Serration—none, slight, medium, complex (terms based 
on conditions in average skulls of Whites). Student may also refer to 
given standards (Broca, Martin), but above terms when used with 
proper care are quite sufficient. Synostosis: State briefly location, 
and percentage of suture involved. Anomalies: Abnormal sutures— 
give location and extent. Intercalated bones—state briefly location, 
nature, number; in more Cray cases give separately size and other 
particulars. 

Pterions: Give type (H, K, X, I); breadth, if special; note epipteric 
bones; watch for possible anomalous sutures in wing of sphenoid. 

Face: Prognathism, facial and alveolar—none, slight, medium (+), 
above medium, pronounced. 

Orbits: Borders sharp or dull; note important anomalies. 

Suborbital fossae: Shght convexity instead; or, concavity slight, 
medium (+), pronounced. 

Malars: Size—submedium, medium (+), large; protrusion—slight, 
submedium, medium (+), marked. Watch for partial and complete 
malar sutures. 

Zygome: Strength: Slender, moderate, strong, massive. 

Nose: Nasal bones—narrow, medium (+), broad; anomalies. 

Nasal spine: Absent (may even be groove instead), diminutive, 
medium (++), pronounced; when small may be bifid. 

Lower borders of nasal aperature: Sharp, dull; simian gutters— 
moderate or pronounced; subnasal fossae—small, moderate, large. 
Assymetry. 

Palate: Form—elliptic, ovoid, U-shaped, rotund, horseshoe-shaped. 
Shallow or high. Torus. Marked remnants of or complete inter- 
maxillary sutures. 


116 ALES HRDLICKA 


Base: Foramen lacerum medium: Of evolutionary and developmental 
importance.! May be small, submedium, medium, or spacious. 

Depression of Petrous Paris: Of evolutionary and developmental 
importance.! The depression is in relation to the inferior surface of 
the basilar process. The petrous portions may. be slightly above the 
level of the process, or present-a slight, medium (+), or pronounced 
depression below the plane of the basilar process (as viewed with the 
base facing the observer). 

Styloids: Absent, diminutive, small, medium (++), excessive. 

Special: The base offers numerous anomalies, such as pterygo-spi- 
nous foramina, defects in the floor of the auditory meatus, basilar fossa, 
pharyngeal canal, great inequalities of the jugular canals, various 
anomalies about the foramen magnum—basilar spine, third condyle, 
pre-condylar processes, rudimentary atlas, accessory articular facets, 
paroccipital (paramastoid) processes, etc. In view of the multi- 
plicity of these features it is best to make a special examination for 
those the observer may wish to report upon. 

LowER Jaw: Chin—pointed, rounded, square; receding, vertical, 
slight, medium or marked protrusion. Peculiarities: Report extra- 
ordinary features of importance. 

TEETH: Dentition: In children and adolescents note all teeth erupting 
or erupted. ‘Teeth of first and second dentition must be carefully dis- 
tinguished. Wear: None, slight, moderate, marked, excessive. Decay: 
Note number of teeth lost through or affected by decay. Special and 
Anomalies: Ventral surface of upper incisors may be marked by shovel- 
shaped concavity with pronounced rim, which is characteristic of the 
American Indian, occurs occasionally in other yellow-brown people, 
but is rare or less frequent in other races. In line of dental irregulari- 
ties and anomalies note crowding, impactions, congenital defects of 
eruption, supernumerary teeth, and abnormalities of individual teeth. 
A study of the cusps, as well as that of the form and size of the teeth, is 
best carried out separately. 

1See Hrdlitka (A.), ‘Certain Racial Characteristics of the Base of the Skull,” 


Science, 1901, XIII, 309; also Proc. Assoc. Amer. Anatomists, 15th Session, Amer. J. 
Anat., 1901-2, I, 508-9. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 117 


OSTEOMETRY 


Anthropometry of the skeletal parts (outside of the skull) is a 
fertile and fascinating field in which much as yet remains to be exploited 
and even explored. It is, moreover, a large field, which few workers 
may hope to cover in its entirety. Every bone of the body presents 
sexual, racial and individual variations, many of which remain to be 
thoroughly studied; and some of these features, according to indica- 
tions, possess a very considerable phylogenetic and racial importance. 

Investigations on the skeleton are for the most part of a more 
recent date than those on the skull or those on the living, and have 
been largely the work of anatomists. Descriptive observations, 
such as those on the sexual characteristics of the pelvis, or those on 
the perforated humerus, pilasteric femur, platycnaemic tibia, etc., 
preceded and accompanied measurements. The first serious attempts 
at osteometry were made essentially in France, and the first system of 
measurements was developed by Broca and his pupils in Paris.! 

Since the early seventies a whole series of valuable contributions 
to the subject of bone study and osteometry have been made,? and 


1See Broca (P.)—Sur les proportions relatives du bras, de l’avant bras et de la 
clavicule chez les Négres et les Européens. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1862, III, 
162-172; ibid., 1867, 2 Sér., II, 641-653. amy (T.)—Recherches sur les propor- 
tions du bras et d’avant-bras aux differents Ages de la vie. Rev. d’Anthrop. Paris, 
1872, 79. Topinard (P.)—Eléments d’ Anthropologie générale, 8°, Paris, 1885. 

2 Bello y Rodriguez (S.)—Le fémur et le tibia. Thése, Paris, 1909. Bumiiller 
(J..—Das menschliche Femur. Phil. Diss., Miinchen, 1899. Bertaux (T. A.)— 
L’humerus et le fémur considérés dans les espéces, dans les races humains, selon le 
sexe et selon l’Age. Thése, Lille, 1891. Fischer (E.)—Die Variationen an Radius 
und Ulna des Menschen. Z. f. Morph. & Anthrop., 1906, [X, 147. Lehmann-Nitsche 
(R.)—Ueber die langen Knochen der siidbayerischen Reihengriberbevélkerung, 
Phil. Diss., Miinchen; and Beitr. z. Anthrop., & Urgesch. Bayerns, 1894, XI, H. 
3&4. Livon (M.)—De lomoplate. Thése Méd., Paris, 1879. Hrdli¢ka (Ale3)— 
Physical Anthropology of the Lenape or Delawares, and of the eastern Indians in 
General. Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. Pfitzner (W.)—Beitrige zur 
Kenntniss des menschlichen Extremititens-skeletes. Morphol. Arb., 1892, I, 516; 
1893, II, 93. Rollet (E.)—La mensuration des os longs des membres. Thése méd., 


118 ALES HRDLICKA 


much work in this line, particularly in the United States, is as yet un- 
published. The repeated discoveries of skeletal remains of early 
man have in particular stimulated research in this direction. Not- 
withstanding all this, however, we are still far from a satisfactory 
grasp of the evidence which the bones embody. ‘The reasons are, 
in the first place, that the gathering of skeletal material has always 
lagged behind that of the skulls, so that even today most anthropologi- 
cal collections are relatively poor in that respect, which hinders com- 
prehensive and conclusive investigations. Besides this, the bones of 
the skeleton present many features and correlations the study of which 
demands large series of specimens, and in many cases also the presence 
of all the important constituents of the skeleton or the bones of the 
two sides of the body, conditions which are realizable with difficulty 
even among the Whites, not to speak of other peoples. The field will 
long remain, therefore, one of a very considerable importance, and no 
pains should be spared to develop the technique of osteological in- 
vestigation. 

The scheme here presented rests on the same principles as those 
presented before for anthropometry and craniometry. It utilizes 
the most useful procedures of other scholars, supplements these 
where extensive individual experience warrants, leaves aside every- 
thing superfluous or of value only in special studies, and aims at the 
utmost simplicity. 

INSTRUMENTS 


The matter of osteometric instruments has already to some extent 

been dealt with in the section on Craniometry (Vol. II, 1919, p. 50), 
The essentials are few. They are the Broca’s osteometric board (pl. 
1), the small compas glissiere and for a few measurements also the large 
sliding compass; but other instruments may be needed for special 
investigations. 
Lyon, 1889; Intern. Monatschr. f. Anat. & Physiol., 1889, VI, 345. Soularue (M.)— 
Recherches sur les dimensions des os et les proportions squeletiques de ’homme. Bull. 
Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1899, Sér. 4, X, 328. Turner (Sir Wm.)—Report on the human 
crania and other bones of the skeletons collected during the voyage of H. M. S. 
Challenger, 1873-6: II—The bones of the skeleton. Challenger Reports, Zool., 
1886, Pt. XLVII. Verneau (R.)—Le bassin dans les sexes et dans les races. Thése 
Méd., Paris, 1875. Volkov (Th.)—Variations squelettiques du pied ches les primates 
et dans les races humaines. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1903, Sér. 5, IV, 622; 1904, 
V, 1, 201. Waldeyer (W.)—Das Becken. Bonn, 1899. Wetzel (G.)—Volumen 
und Gewicht des Knochens als Massstab fiir den phylogenetischen Entwicklungsgrad. 
Arch. f. Entw. d. Organismen. 1910, XXX, 507-537. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 





ined. 


d and exam 


ing measure 


for support of skulls while be 


leather ri 


d 


ter (translucent) 


goniome 


} 


Osteometric board with block 


Fia. 18. 


120 ALES HRDLICKA 


The osteometric board is too well known to need special description; 
but for the original accessory square the writer uses a block of light 
wood (see fig. 18), which offers certain advantages. The block is 9.5 
em. high and 4.5 em. thick, while its length equals the breadth of the 
board. 

For description of instruments used on special occasions the student 
should consult the original sources.! 


BLANKS 


The matter of blanks in osteometry presents some difficulties on 
account of the many distinct bones each of which requires its own 
blank. An outline of a blank such as used for general purposes by 
the writer will be given separately with each bone. Such blanks may 
be made by the student himself, and their scope may be enlarged as 
demanded by the needs of the occasion. As they are they represent 
what invariably we should know of each of the bones. 


OBSERVATIONS: TYPICAL BONE VARIANTS IN FORM 


Before proceeding to the measurements, attention should be given 
to the important subject of bone variations in shape. 

Each of the long bones, and also the scapule, first rib, etc., present 
a variety of forms which are reducible to definite types, and the fre- 
quency of these types differs from race to race. In the remainder of 
the skeletal parts similar variations occur, but they are less classifiable. 
The whole subject is of very considerable anthropological and phylo- 
as well as ontogenetic importance. 

In the long bones the part that varies most in form is the shaft; 
in the scapula it is in the contour of the bone. Bones of less conse- 
quence will be considered on other occasions. 

1 Besides the Memoirs of Broca and the textbooks of Topinard and Martin, see: 
Emmons (A. B.)—A study in the variations of the female pelvis. Biometrica, 1913, 
IX, 34-57. Garson (G.)—Pelvimetry. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1882, XVI, 106-134. 
Frassetto (F.)—Lezioni di anthropologia, 1911-1913. Hepburn (D.)—A new osteo- 
metric board. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1899, XXXIV, 111. Matthews (W.)—An 
apparatus for determining the angle of torsion of the humerus. J. Anat. & Physiol., 
1887, XXI, 536-8. Russell (F.)—A new instrument for measuring torsion. Am. 
Nat., 1901, X XV, 299. 

2 For original reports on this subject see Hrdlit¢ka (AleS)—Study of the normal 
tibia. Am. Anthrop. 1898, XI, 307-312; Proc. Ass. Am. Anat., 11 Sess., Wash. 1899, 
61-66.—A further contribution to the study of the tibia, relative to its shapes. Proc. 
Ass. Am. Anat., XII & XIII Ses. Wash. 1900, 12-13.—Typical forms of shaft of 
long bones. Proc. Ass. Am. Anat., XIV Sess., Wash. 1901, 55-60. Also Bull. 62, 
Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash. 1916. Consult also: Manouvrier (L.)—La platycnémie 


ANTHROPOMETRY 12) 


Long Bones: The form of the shaft of the long bones is best differenti- 
ated at or near the middle of the bones, in adult individuals. 

Variation in these shapes is greatest in the Whites. There are 
considerable racial and other group differences in the relative fre- 
quency of the different types of the shaft of the various bones; no one 
type, however, occurs exclusively or is completely absent in any of 
the human groups now existing. Some of the shapes are common to 
the anthropoid apes, and others occur far back in the animal kingdom. 

The bones of the lower extremity show more numerous and better 
defined differentiations of form than those of the upper extremity. 
Of the individual long bones, the fibula presents the greatest variety 
of shapes; then follow in the order named, the tibia, femur, humerus, 
ulna, and radius. 

Perfect representations of the various types of each bone are found 
whenever large collections are examined, but the less perfect and 
less clearly distinguishable types are always more common. Besides 
there is always a considerable percentage of bones which present 
intermediary or indefinite, and a small proportion which show com- 
bined forms. 

The form of shaft common to all the long bones in man is the pris- 
matic (No. 1). The outline of the cross-section of a shaft of this type 
approaches the equilateral triangle. This type is also common in 
apes, and more or less modified in lower mammals. The base of the 
prism is formed in the tibia, fibula, and humerus by the posterior 
surface; in the femur by the anterior surface; in the ulna by the in- 
ternal, and in the radius by the external surface of the bone. In 
whites this type of shaft is most frequent in the humerus and tibia. 
In the fibula it is more or less modified by the narrow anterior surface 
of the bone. 

The nearest modifications of type 1 are types of shaft Nos. 2 and 4. 
Type 2 occurs principally in the tibia, fibula and humerus, and is 
characterized by the obliquity of the posterior surface of the bone. 
The outline of the cross-section is a lateral triangle, a half lozenge 
(more or less). Type 4 occurs in all the long bones, and is charac- 


chez ’homme et chez les singes. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1887, Sér. 3, X, 128.— 
Mémoire sur la platycnémie chez ’homme et chez les anthropoids. Mém. & Bull. 
Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1888, Sér. 2, III, 469.—Etude sur les variations morphologiques 
du corps de fémur dans l’espece humaine. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1893, Sér. 4, 
IV, 111; Rev. d’Ecole d’Anthrop. Paris, 1893, III, 389. And Graves (Wm. W.)—The 
scaphoid scapula. Med. Record, May 21, 1910; Wen. klin. Woch., 1912, XXV, No. 
6; J. Cutan. Dis., etc., April, 1913; and others on same subject. 


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ANTHROPOMETRY 123 


terized by the presence of a distinct additional surface on the shaft. 
The formation of the surface differs in the various bones. In the 
tibia the additional surface results from a division into two, by a 
vertical ridge, of the posterior surface; in the femur it is the anterior, 
in the radius the external, and in the ulna the posterior surface, which 
occasionally, through the influence of a vertical ridge, shows a forma- 
tion of a distinct additional plane; in the humerus, finally, a new, 
anterior surface results occasionally by the broadening out of the 
anterior border of the bone. The cross section of the shaft in these 
cases differs from lozenge shape (more or less) to a more even quad- 
rangle. 

A special class of modifications of the form of the shaft is that 
where one or more surfaces of the bone show a pronounced concavity. 
We find such types (8, 3a, 3b,) particularly in the fibula, but also in 
the tibia, ulna and radius. In the fibula the concavity affects es- 
pecially the external, but also the internal, and occasionally both the 
external and internal, and even the posterior surfaces; in tibia the 
character is observed on the external, and in the ulna and radius 
mainly on the anterior, flexor, surface. 

Types 5, 6, e and r, are widely differing forms of the shaft of some 
of the long bones; all these types have, nevertheless, two features in 
common, and that is an indistinctness or complete absence of one or 
more of the borders of the bone, with marked convexity of two or all 
the surfaces. 

Type 5 occurs occasionally in the tibia and frequently in the radius. 
It is marked by the convexity of the posterior tibial and external 
radial surface, and by indistinctness of the internal and sometimes also 
the external border in the tibia and the anterior and posterior borders 
in the radius. In both bones, but particularly in the tibia, this type 
of form represents a deficiency in the differentiation of the bone. 

Type No. 6 occurs in the tibia, femur and humerus. The shaft is 
plano-convex. Types e (elliptical) and r (round, cylindrical) are found 
in the femur. 

The condition of flatness in long bones occurs quite independently 
of the shape otherwise of these shafts. Flatness is not only found in 
the tibia, but also in the fibula (lateral), in the femur (antero-posterior 
of whole shaft, and, independently, antero-posterior of the upper 
part of the shaft, below the minor trochanter), and in the humerus 
(lateral). The flat femur (whole shaft) occurs almost exclusively in 
whites and independently of the flatness of other long bones. It is a 


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ANTHROPOMETRY 125 


rare and possibly abnormal condition. A flat tibia is often accom- 
panied by a flat fibula, and not seldom also by a platymeric (flat in 
upper part) femur. 

The scapula presents three main shapes or types, namely, the 
triangular or wedge-shaped; the bi-concave, with its axillary and 
especially vertebral border concave (the ‘‘scaphoid” scapula of 
Graves) ; and the convex, with its vertebral border markedly convex. 

Causes.—The shape of the bones is influenced by heredity, stage of 
development, sex, muscular activity, size of body, and pathological 
conditions. 

Heredity: There are reasons to believe that certain types of bones 
run in families; and essentially through differences in heredity there are 
marked differences in the relative frequency of occurrence of the 
various types in different races. 

Stage of life: During fetal life and early childhood, the shapes of 
bones are fewer in number, and do not always correspond to the shapes 
the bones will eventually have in the adult. Differentiation advances 
with age and the shape of a bone is probably not fully stabilized, 
particularly as to fluting, before advanced adult life. 

Sex: Male bones show on the whole a greater differentiation of 
shapes than those of the females; also, some types of form are more 
common in one sex than in the other. Most, if not all these differ- 
ences, may, however, be due to differences in muscular activities. 

Race: The modern cultured Whites show more variation in shape of 
bones than the Indians, and the Indians more than the Negro or 
Negrito. The causes appear to be partly hereditary and partly 
occupational. 

Muscular activity: Muscular peculiarities and muscular activites 
of the individual exercise a potent influence in modifying the shape of 
the bones. 

Size of the body: The largest and the smallest bones of any variety 
show in general less differentiation than the average; and weak bones 
show more uniformity than the strongly developed. 

Pathological: Very prolonged undernourishment or vitiated state 
of blood during fetal life or childhood may undoubtedly affect the 
general development as well as the shape differentiation of bones; but 
no proof exists that special pathological states are responsible for any 
special form-types of individual bones. 

The sum of the observations points to the fact that the principal 
causes of the various shapes of the shafts of the long and bodies of 


126 ALES HRDLICKA 


other bones must be sought for, first, in original differences in the 
attachment of the various muscles to the shafts; and second, in an 
unequal development and work of the individual muscles during child- 
hood and adolescence. The original differences in attachment, 
some of which can be clearly seen on the bones, are in all probability 
partly hereditary, partly early acquired conditions. The manner 
in which the differently attached or differently developed muscles 
affect the shape of bone must of course be largely if not entirely 
mechanical. 
ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS 


In addition to shape, the bones of the skeleton offer an array of 
highly interesting points for observation, and many of these, as 
already mentioned, are of phylogenetic importance. Of these, the 
main ones will be included in the blanks to be given. ; 


MEASUREMENTS 
Blank: HUMERUS 
AL Tiere sears eae Locality ;.eeak ees Observers. 2. Haase 
Right Left 
At Middle: Observations : 


Cat.| Sex|Age| Length | Diam. | Diam. Index Shape | Perforation Supra- Special) Patho- 
No. Max. | Major | Minor | /bd x 100 of of Septum? condylar logical 
(a) (b) a Shaft! Process? 


1Type 1 = prismatic; 2, 2a = lateral prismatic (2 = posterior surface facing 
backward and inward; 2a = posterior surface facing backward and outward); 4 = 
quadrilateral (anterior border broadened out to a distinct fourth surface); 6 = 
plano-convex; 7 = intermediary or indistinct. 

2 pp = pin point; sm = small; m = medium;/ = large. When double or multi- 
ple, state so. 

3 None (—); rough trace =r. tr.; ridge: slight, medium, pronounced (r. sl-m-pr); 
tubercle: slight, or medium (tb. sl-m); process: 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, etc., complete (pr. 1/3, 
1/2, 2/8, etc.). 


Notes.—The length is taken on the osteometric board. Apply head 
to the vertical, take hold of bone by left hand, apply block to distal 
extremity, and raising bone slightly, move up and down as well 
as from side to side until maximum length is determined. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 127 

Diameter major at middle.—C. g. Determine mid-point of shaft on 
osteometric board and mark with pencil Lay rod of compass to the 
antero-lateral surface and apply branches to the bone. 


Diameter minor at middle-—Apply fixed branch of sliding compass to 
the antero-lateral surface at middle and take measurement. 


DA Os Bey goes Observer 


Cat. Sex Age Length Shape! Anomalies |Pathological Radio— 
No. Max. Humeral 
Index? 


ULNA 
HM TiIDGra etree wets POCAUGY 7 tie cas he ODSErVeniid oan cea + 
Right Left 
Cat. No. Sex Age Length Shape? Anomalies Pathological 
Max. 


ee ee | 


Note: Maximum length is taken in same way as that of the humerus. 


17 = prismatic; 2 = flexor surface concave (fluted); 5 = external surface con- 
vex, borders indistinct. 


, Length of Radius x 100 
Length of Humerus ~ 


31 = prismatic, 2 = flexor surface concave (fluted); 4 = quadrilateral (posterior) 


surface divided into two, so that the shaft presents four distinct surfaces, borders 
and angles. 


128 ALES HRDLICKA 


FEMUR 
Tribe sei cee a ie Locality, tac vane Obsetveria oe >a. 
Right 
| At Middle: 
Cat. Sex Age Length Length Humero- Diam. Antero- Diam, Index? 
No. Bicondylar Max. femoral Posterior Lateral 
Index! Maxim. 
(Continued) Left 
At Upper Flattening: Observations: 
Diam. | Diam, Index? Shape of Third Linea Anomalies Patho- 
Lateral Antero- Shaft Condyle® Asperaé logical 
Maxim. posterior 
Minim. 





|| OO oO | | | SC  ——) NS | | | 


Notes: The bicondylar length of the femur is taken by adjusting both 
condyles to the vertical part of the osteometric board and, with the 
bone reposing on the board, applying the block to the other extremity. 

The length maximum of the femur is measured in the same way as the 
maximum length of other bones (see under Humerus). 

The antero-posterior diameter at middle (middle of shaft determined 
and marked beforehand) is the diameter maximum. / 
The lateral diameter at middle is taken so that the linea-aspera 
reposes on the stem of the sliding compass midway between the two 

branches of the same when these are applied to the bone. 

1 Length of Humerus x 100 

Bicondylar length of femur 

2 Diam. lat. x 100 

Diam. ant.-post. 
‘Diam. minimum xX 100 
Diam. maxim. 

‘Type 1 = prismatic; 4 = quadrilateral (anterior surface divided by a vertical 
ridge in two); r = cylindrical (juvenile); ¢ = elliptical; pc = plano-convex. 

b’r = ridge; o. t. = oblong tuberosity; r. t. = round tuberosity; d = depression; 
all: slight, moderate, or pronounced. 

¢sl., mod., pron. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 129 


In plano-convex and related femora the shaft is so deformed and the 
linea-aspera so displaced, that the measurement of the diameters is 
impractical and should be omitted. 

Circumference of the shaft at middle as taken by some observers 
and contrasted with the length of the bone, gives data of some value for 
sexual identification; but the same may be done with the mean of the 
two diameters. 


TIBIA 
LENG twee ace LOGaltyy <saces Observer fons ook aes 
Right 
At Middle: 
Cat. Sex Age Length Length | Tibio-femo-| Diam. Antero- Diam. Peoeee 
No. (Less Spine)| Maxim. | ral Index! | posterior Max. Lateral pe ) 
(T) (a) b) a 

(Continued) Left 

Observations: 

| 
hol 
Shape? Peculiarities hi 1 at aaa ! Exostoses Other 


Notes: To take the ordinary length of the tibia introduce the spine 
into the orifice provided for this purpose in the vertical part of the 
osteometric board, apply outer parts of the condyles to the vertical 
outside of the orifice, let body of the bone repose on the horizontal 
part of the board, and apply block to the most distant point (mal- 
leolus). 

: T x 100 

Bicond. |. of femur 
2Type 1 =prismatic; 2 = lateral prismatic; 3 = external surface concave 


(fluted); 4 = posterior surface divided in two; 5 = posterior surface convex, in- 
ternal border indistinct; 6 = plano-convex (gorilloid). 


9 


130 ALES HRDLICKA 


It is also useful to take the maximum length of the tibia. This 
is secured by placing the spine within the orifice as with the previous 
measurement, applying the most prominent point of the condyles to 
the vertical, taking hold of the body by the left hand and moving the 
bone from side to side as well as slightly upward and downward, while 
holding the block applied to the malleolus, until the maximum length 
is determined. 





FIBULA 
LIDGE fer naan ST MWOCRUL Yl, tanec c Observer -2'72.. one 
Right Left 
Cat. No. Sex Age Length Shape! Anomalies Pathological 
Max. 
ScAPULA 
LTWOG ce oo tae Locality: wares Observeticns..-s ee 
Right 
Cat. Sex | Age | Height | Height | Height | Breadth| Glenoid | Index: | Index: Index Type® 
No. Total | Infra- | Glenoid} (c¢) pt. Total? |Inferior®| (Hrdlitka) :4 
(a) spinous; pt.- Breadth 
(b) Infer. y 
Angie 


(x) 


a a | rrr | ar | | ee | 


Notes: The total height of the scapula is obtained by measuring in 
a straight line the distance from the superior to the inferior angle. 


1{ = Ordinary quadrilateral, approaching prismatic; anterior surface nearly 
absent to moderate; posterior surface facing directly backward or nearly so. 2 = 
Lateral prismatic; posterior surface facing backward and inward; medial surface 
much less in area than lateral; anterior surface narrow to broad. 2a = relation 
between medial and lateral surface reversed, the latter being the narrower. 3 = 
medial surface fluted; 4 = lateral surface differentiated into two surfaces; 6 = 
lateral surface fluted; 6 = both medial and lateral surfaces fluted; 9 = all three 
surfaces fluted. 

2¢ x 100 3c X 100 4y x 100 

a b x 

5 Type: 1 = triangular; 3 = biconcave (“scaphoid”’), axillary and vertebral 

borders concave; 6 = convex, vertebral border convex. 





ANTHROPOMETRY 131 


ScAPULA 
(Continued) Left 
Observations: 
Shape of Su- Notch? Vertebral Axillary Anomalies Pathological 


perior Border? Border* Border# 


The infra-spinous height is the height from the inferior angle to 
a point at which the spine transects the vertebral border of the bone. 
To determine this point hold scapula in left hand with dorsal surface 
up in such a way that the eye can follow the prolongation of the spine 
to the axillary border. Mark the mid point of the juncture of the 
spine with the border (and not the lower or upper limit). 

The glenoid point height is the distance from the inferior angle to 
the center of the little roughness or fossa situated near the middle of 
the glenoid cavity. 

The breadth of the scapula (c) is the diameter from the middle of the 
outer (dorsal) border of the glenoid cavity to the point where the spine 
intersects the vertebral border. (Broca, P. —Sur les indices de lon- 
gueur de l’omoplate chez l’homme, les singes et dans la série des 
mammiféres. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., 1878, Sér. 3, I, 66.) The glenoid 
point breadth is that from this point.5 


STERNUM® 
Paver oe Lashes Bocalityer .. seats aes Observersacc: s.2 ss 
Length | Manubrial | Great- Sternal Maxi- | Number} Anoma-]| Re- 
Length |of Man- Index est Index mum of Rib lies marks 
(Less ubrium mX100\ |Breadth} /b«100 Thick- | Facets 
Xiphoid) s of Body s ness of 











(s) (m) \b) Body | y, | J. 


a | ee ee 











17 = horizontal, at right angle, or near, with coracoid; 2 = moderate obliquity 
upwards, angle 55-80; 3 = pronounced obliquity, angle near 45; 4 = semiquadrate; 
6 = semicircular; 6 = wavy. 

27 = none; 2 = slight; 3 = moderate; 4 = nearly a foramen; 5 = foramen. 

31 = straight; 2 = concave; 3 = convex: slightly—moderately—pronouncedly. 

47 = straight; 2 = teres process slight; 3 = moderate; 4 = pronounced. 

’ The glenoid point is a less variable landmark than the glenoid border; also it 
is the more suitable in measurements of scapule of various animals. The y — x 
index is the most stable index of the scapula. 

6 Consult: Anthony (R.)—Notes sur la morphogenie du Sternum chez mammiféres, 


132 ALES HRDLICKA 


Notes: The length of the sternum as well as that of the manubrium 
is best measured on the osteometric board; the breadth and thickness 
of the bone are measured with the sliding compass. The thickness 
of the body should be measured between the facets for the ribs. 

Among the anomalies are to be observed especially the foramen or 
defect in the lower part of the bone, and the occurence of episternals. 

The relative proportions of the manubrium and body of the sternum 
show sexual as well as group differences; and the same may be said in 
regard to the fusion of the manubrium with the body of the bone. 


CLAVICLES! 
Tribes: sinnieeioers Locality. 0s. 2<s + aes Observer siccic- cn etes 
Right Left 
Cat. Sex Age Length Conoid Strength? | Curvature? } Anomalies 
No. Maximum Tuberosity 


AR ee 


Notes: The length of the clavicle is best determined on the osteometric 
board, but may also be measured by the small or the large sliding 
compass. 

The comparison of the length of the clavicle with the length of 
the humerus (claviculo-humeral index) is useful as an indication of the 
relative development of the thorax. 

The acromial extremity may in rare cases be separated; a few other 
anomalies may also occur. 


Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1901, II, 19-48. Dwight (Thos.)—The Sternum as 
an index of sex, height and age. J. Anat. & Physiol., 1890, XXIV, 527-535. Krause 
(W.)—Ueber das weibliche Sternum. Jntern. Monatsschr. f. Anat. & Physiol., 
1897, XIV, 21-32. Parker (W. J.)—Structure and development of the Shoulder 
Girdle and Sternum in the Vertebrates. Roy. Soc. Publ., Lond., 1868. Paterson 
(A. M.)—The human sternum. Liverpool, 1904; also Brit. Med. J., 1902, II; and 
J. Anat. & Physiol., 1900, XXXV, Pt. 1. 

1 Consult Pasteau (E.)—Recherches sur les proportions de la Clavicule. Thése 
méd., Paris, 1879; also Parsons (F. G.)—On the proportions and characteristics of 
the modern English Claricle. J. Anat., Lond., 1916, LI, 71-93. 

2 Sl = slender; m = medium; str = strong; mas = massive. 

3 Sl = slight; m = medium; pron = pronounced. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 130 


Riss! 
LYIDG. < oe > a as POCSULY cre Coca toe ODSErVEr sets cts 
Cat. Sex | Age Number Present Anomalies | Fractures and Ist Rib Remarks 
No. cd Pathological Shape.? 


| ee ff | ef 


Notes: In skeletal material obtained from older graves the ribs are 
seldom all present and in good condition; nevertheless their examina- 
tion should not be neglected. Cervical, supernumerary, bifid, bici- 
pital and fused ribs are of special interest; and other anomalies may 
occur. 

The first rib deserves special attention, particularly as to its shape. 
The development of the scalene tubercle may also be noted on the 
first rib. 






SPINES 
4B alae te Se Al ge OGRE Vita a tok be a oe Observer. 0. hu s dae 
Atlas: Other Cervical: Dorsal: Lumbar: 
Cat. Sex.| Age} Anoma-| Re- Num-! Anoma-! Re- Num- | Anoma-| Re- Num- | Anoma-| Re- 
No. lies marks; ber lies marks ber lies marks ber lies marks 





eemenceceeee | were | en | | mes 











1 Bardeen (Ch. R.)—Costo-vertebral variationin Man. Anat. Anz., 1900, XVIII, 
377-382. Hrdlicka (Ale’)—Contribution to the Osteology of Ribs, Proc. Ass. Am. 
Anat., XIV Sess., Wash., 1901, 61-68. Tredgold (A. F.)—Variations of Ribs in the 
Primates with especial reference to the number of sternal Ribs in Man. J. Anat. 
& Physiol., 1897, XX XI, 288-302. 

27 =curved (semilunar); 2 = monoangular or pistol-shaped (nearly straight 
neck, with nearly straight body); 3 = biangular (distinct angle in body, besides 
that between neck and body). 

’ Consult: Anderson (R. J.)—Observations on the diameters of human vertebrae 
in different regions. J. Anat. & Physiol., London, 1883, XVII, 341-4. Bardeen 
(Chas. R.)—Numerical Vertebral Variation in the Human Adult and Embryo; 
Anat. Anz., 1904, XXV, 497-519. Cunningham (D. J.)—Lumbar Curve in Man and 
the Apes. Dublin, 1886. Dubreuil-Chambardel (L.)—Variations sexuelles de 
VAtlas. Bull. & Mém, d’Anthrop., Paris, 1907, VIII, 399-404. Dwight (Thomas)— 


134 ALES HRDLICKA 


Notes: Various measurements and many detailed observations are 
possible on the spine and its different constituents. As to measure- 
ments, the most interesting are the relative lengths of the cervical, 
dorsal and lumbar parts of the spine compared with the total length 
of the three. The length of these parts is best taken by the small and 
large sliding compasses, between the mid points anteriorly of the 
upper and lower border of the body of the first and last vertebra of 
each segment, with the bones held in a close and natural apposition. 

The atlas should receive special attention, for it is subject to many 
independent variations, particularly in respect to blood vessel foramina 
and canals. 

The lowest part of the dorsal and the uppermost as well as lower- 
most parts of the lumbar segment, are also of special interest, the 
former on account of occasional numerical variation, the latter on 
account of occasional separation of neural arch, a presence of a sacral 
element with more or less assimilation, etc. 

The minor anomalies of the spine and its constituents should be 
reserved for special study. 


Sacrum, Petvic Bonss, PELVIS 


Uyibe foe eee Localitvce sew eaane Observer sis. cree ae 
Sacrum: 
Cat. Sex Age Height Breadth Sacral | Number of | Curva-| Curvature | Special 
No. Maxim.! Maxim. Index? Segments ture? Begins at‘ 


a ee 


Description of the Human Spines showing numerical variation. Mem. Boston Soc. 
Nat. Hist., 1901, 237-312, also, Anat. Anz., 1901, XIX, 332, 337-347; and Anat. 
Anz., 1906, XX VIII, 833-40, 96-102. Hrdlitka (AleS’)—The atlas of Monte Hermoso. 
In Bull. 52, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash. 1912, 364-9. Papillault (G.)—Variations 
numériques des vertébres lombaires chez ’homme. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 
1898, IX, 198-222. Ranke (J.)—Zur Anthropologie der Halswirbelsiule. Sitz. 
math. phys. Cl. bayer. Akad. Wiss., 1895, XXV, 1-23. Ravenel (M.)—Die Maas- 
verhaltnisse der Wirbelsiule und des Riickenmarkes beim Menschen. Inaug. 
Dissert., Leipzig, 1877, 1-27. Regalia (C. E.)—Sulla causa generale delle anomalie 
numeriche del rachide. Arch. p. Antrop. & Etn., 1895, XXV, 149-219. Rosenberg 
(E.)—Ueber die Entwicklung der Wirbelsiule. Gegenbaur’s Morphol. Jahrb., 
Leipzig, 1875, I, 1-111. Soularue (G. Martial)—Etude des proportions de la colonne 
vertébrale chez homme et chez la femme. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1900, 
Sér. 5, I, 182-147. Zoja (G.)—Sulle varieta dell’atlante. Bol. sci., 1881, Nos. 1 & 2, 
repr. 24 pp., Also C. R. R. Ist. Lomb., Cl. Sc. mat. & nat., 1881, XIV, 269-296. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 135 


Sacrum, Petvic Bonss, PELVIS 
(Continued) 


Ossa Innominata: 





Height Maxim. | Breadth Maxim.| Mean | Special |Breadth| Total |Superior|/Diameter) Pelvic Re- 
> | | Index |Features}Maxim.$|} Index’ | Strait: | Antero-| Index | marks 


ht Let Right Breadth] posterior 
Rig eft gh Left Sp bare slan Maxim,® 


nn fe 


Notes: In measuring the height of the sacrum use sliding compass 
and apply points of instrument to middle of promontory and middle of 
anterior-inferior border of the fifth sacral vertebra. For general 
comparative purposes measure only sacra with five segments. 

In measuring breadth apply stem of compass to the upper surface of 
the body of the first sacral vertebra and measure the greatest expanse 
of the lateral masses of the bone. 

The height of the ossa innominata is best measured on the osteo- 
metric board. Apply ischium to the vertical part of the board, 
hold bone with left hand, apply block to iliac border with right hand 
and move bone up and down and from side to side until maximum 
measurement is obtained. 

The breadth of the ossa innominata is best measured by the sliding 
compass. It is the distance between the anterior and posterior 
superior spines. 

For measuring the pelvis as a whole articulate the bones, hold with 
both hands, invert, and secure breadth maximum of ilia on the osteo- 

1 Long branch of sliding compass applied ventrally, in median line, to anterior 
border of lower end and to promontory. 

2 Breadth x 100, 

Height 

’ Slight, moderate, pronounced. 

4 Name segment (from above). 

* Mean breadth x 100 , 

Mean height 

‘Pelvis held together with bones in natural position; the breadth is the bi-iliac 
maximum, and can be taken handily on the osteometic board, or by a second person 
with the large sliding compass. 

7 Breadth x 100 

Mean height of ossa innominata 

8 From promontory of the sacrum to the nearest point on the ventral border of 

the pubic bones. 


136 ALES HRDLICKA 


metric board. With the help of a pelviphore (such as that of Emmons) 
the taking of this measurement and of those of the brim becomes a 
simple matter. 
~ To measure the diameters of the superior strait or brim of the pelvis 
without a pelviphore, hold pelvis in left hand, and use small sliding com- 
pass. The antero-posterior diameter is that between the mid point 
on the promontory of the sacrum and the nearest point on the ventral 
borders of the pubic articulation. The lateral diameter is the maxi- 
mum transverse diameter of the brim. 

A natural slight separation of the pubic bones should be retained 
during all measurements. 


SHorT BoNnES 


Patella. 
ETE Etat. easels ee LQCOHEY Sn karen Observer ac ces 
Right Left 
Cat. Sex Age Height |Breadth|Thickness | Breadth-Height | Patellar Mod- | Vastus 
No. Maxim.| Maxim.| Maxim. Index 








(BX 100) 
H 


eee ee ne eee 





Notes: All the measurements to be taken with the small sliding 
compass. In measuring the height and breadth of the bone, move the 
latter slightly from side to side between the branches of the compass 
until the maximum measurement is determined. The height is taken 
by applying the fixed branch to the anterior surface of the bone and 
bringing the movable branch posteriorly over its thickest parts. 

The vastus notch shows interesting variations. 

1 Consult: Corner (KE. M.)—Varieties and structure of the Patella of Man. J. 
Anat. & Physiol., 1900, XXXIV, XXVII-XXVIII; also Ten Kate (H.)—Rotule. 


Rev. Mus. La Plata, 1896, VII, 12-16. Also Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Wash. 1916. 
2— none; sl = slight; m = moderate; 1 = large. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 197 


CALCANEUS! 
IDOLS haya se Locality <.20..2.22.< Observer! : «44:24 so 
Right Left 
Cat.|Sex | Age pee 4.13 Breadth- Breadth- Height- Module Articular 8 mn 
0. Ss F 3 Aly 2] Length Height Length |(L+B+H)| Facetstor| 3| # 
HRISH\GS| Index Index Index | 3 | Astragalus} g| g 
As|gz)/S8) (Bx 100) | (BX 100) | (HX 100) o| 8 
= L H L <q| & 


ce seer | re | ee | | SEE ere cee ee ef eee 


Notes: All measurements to be taken with the small sliding compass. 
The taking of the maximum length will be self-evident. To secure 
the breadth, the branches of the compass should be applied to the 
sides of the bone in the region of the minimum thickness of its body. 
The most practicable height of the calcaneus is obtained by moving 
the bone from side to side between the branches of the compass, which 
are applied to what is seen to be the greatest constriction of the body 
(approximately its middle). 

As to visual observations on the Os calcis, the greatest interest 
attaches probably to the number and conformation of the articular 
facets for the astragalus. These facets may be two in number, an- 
terior and posterior. But the anterior facet may be divided into two 
by a ridge; or it may be replaced by two facets, anterior and median, 
completely separated by a narrow to moderately broad groove or 
space; or, finally, in place of the single oblong anterior facet there 
may be a small to rudimentary anterior and a medium-sized median 
facet, separated by a broad and deep notch. 

An additional point of some interest is the development of the 
peroneal spine. 


1See Bull. 62, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 


138 ALES HRDLICKA 


ASTRAGALUS! 
Tribes ieee TLocalityinn. ctu vine Observer... ce sees 
Right Left 
Cat.| Sex | Age Length Breadth} Height | Breadth- Height- Module Facets for 
No. Maxim.| Maxim.| Maxim.| Length Length |(L+8+H)|Calcaneus? | 3 
Index Index’ \guacs ewe 3 
(BX 100) | (ZEX 100) A 
L L 


aes | ee | ee ee | eee ee eee 





Notes: For length maximum, apply stem of sliding compass to 
lowest (most prominent) parts of the medial surface on the bone. 

The maximum breadth is taken by applying the fixed branch of the 
sliding compass to the lowest (most prominent) parts on the medial 
surface of the bone. 

The maximum height of the astragalus is best taken on the osteo- 
metric plane, on which the bone is placed so that all the three lowest 
points of its inferior surface touch the vertical part, while the block is 
applied to the most prominent part of the bone from the opposite 
direction. 

A comparative study of the calcaneus facets on the talus with the 
corresponding facets on the latter bone, is of considerable interest, and 
shows some racial variations. 


ScapPHorp? 
Locality. 237094 ca0: ODser Vel ie. cae see 
Left 
Height- Stoutness- | Facet |. Facet |Tuber-| Addi- 
Breadth Breadth for for osity® | tional 
Index Index Cuboid‘| Talus, 
(HX 100) (SX 100) Form’ 
B B 


ce | ee ee | 





1See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 

21 = one facet not divided by any ridge; 2 = one facet divided into two by a 
ridge; 3 = two distinct facets, but slightly connected or completely apart. 

*See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 

4 Present or absent. 

5 pf = pyriform; q = quadrilateral; 7 = intermediary or indefinite. 

¢p = pointed; bl = blunt (markedly); sq = squarish. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 139 


Notes: The maximum breadth of the bone is taken by the small 
sliding compass and is measured from the extremity of the tuberosity 
ad maximum. 

To take the maximum height of the bone use the large sliding com- 
pass with broad branches; hold instrument vertically, lay bone on 
movable branch on its talus facet, raise the branch until the bone 
touches the under surface of the fixed branch and read measurement. 

To measure the stoutness use same instrument as for height. Lay 
bone on the movable branch of the compass on its dorsal or superior 
surface, let it assume a natural position, and raise the branch until 
the most prominent part of the plantar surface of the bone touches 
the under surface of the fixed branch. 


Cusorp! 
pETIOG ott Grace a, MOCRUEY es ae as Observers 5.005 ccirs 
Right Left 


Cat.| Sex | Age} Length | Breadth| Thick- | Breadth- | Thickness- Module /Facet| Facet | Addi- 
No. Maxim.| Maxim.| ness Length Length |(Z2+8+T7)]| for for | tional 
Maxim. Index Index ——3 |Cunei-| Talus*® 
(BX 100) (TX100) | form? 


sees | Se | | eee | | ee | a | ee | | ee | | 


Notes: The maximum length of the bone is measured with the small 
sliding compass, between the most prominent point on the superior 
and inferior borders of the distal or metatarsal facet of the bone and 
the point at the inferior medial angle (calcanean process). 

The maximum breadth is obtained with the cuboid resting on its 
medial surface in such a position as it naturally assumes. This and 
the next measurement are best taken by the large sliding compass 
with broad branches. 

The maximum thickness is taken with the cuboid resting on its 
anterior surface in such position as it naturally assumes. 

1See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 

2g = gingle; r = divided in two by a well marked ridge; 3 = double (connected 
or not). 

3 Present or absent. 


140 ALES HRDLIGKA 


INTERNAL CUNEIFORM! 











LTIDG, sceia te cee Locahty."2en vee. 2: Observers..c fea 
Right Left 
Cat. Sex Age Height Breadth | Breadth-Height | Metatarsal | Additional 
No. Maxim. Minim. Index Facet? 
(B X 100) 
Te 





ee ee ee ee re | ee | me ee sm 


Note: Measurements taken with sliding compass. Height maxi- 
mum is secured by applying the fixed branch of the compass to the 
most prominent parts of the inferior surface of the bone and bringing 
the other branch into apposition. 

The minimum breadth, in the middle of the bone, is obtained by 
applying the fixed branch of the compass so that it rests on both lips 
of the scaphoid facet, and bringing the other branch into apposition 
with the bone. Itis the only practicable breadth in all specimens. 

External cuneiform: Note frequency of absence of facet for fourth 
metatarsal, also for second metatarsal. 

Middle Cunerform: Note character of central ligamentous depression 
and canal running downward from this. 


BoNES OF THE Hanp! 
TIDES 44s Oo ves Locality 32 .saecka a Observer 225 J. cies aes 


Bones of Carpus:|Metacarpals: Phalanges: 


Cat. | Sex | Age |Number| Obser-|Number| Re- Length Metacarpo- |Number Re- 
No. vations marks Max. of Humeral marks 
lst Meta- Index! 
carpal 


ee ee Of ee ee ee 


eel 


1See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 
2 Single or double. 
’See Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1916. 
‘ Max. length of Ist metacarpal x 100. 

Max. length of humerus 





ANTHROPOMETRY 141 


BoNES OF THE Foot! 


A bys iT Reet a eee Tocalitv.. tauveces es Observeriacstnecu aur 
Right Left 
Metatarsals: Phalanges: 
Cat. | Sex | Age | Number) Obser- Ist Metatarsal: Re- Num- Re- 
No. vations | ———_____! marks ber marks 


Length | Pollux-Hal-|} Hallux Fe- 
Maxim.| lux Index? | mur Index? 


a em | | et) ee ee | ree | Se See 





ESTIMATION OF STATURE FROM PARTS OF THE SKELETON? 


The International Agreement of Geneva stipulates that: ‘‘For the 
reconstruction of the stature with the aid of the long bones, the maxi- 
mum length shall be measured in all cases save in those of the femur 
which is to be measured in the oblique position, and the tibia which 
is also be to measured in the oblique position, the spine being excluded.” 

Under these conditions and until something more serviceable 
may be provided, the student is advised to use Manouvrier’s tables, 
which are here reproduced. These tables apply only to bones of 
adults; and a proper sexual identification is in each case of the greatest 
importance. All the long bones present should be measured and the 
mean length of each pair used for the approximations in the table, 
the mean of the total of approximations giving the stature. 

1See Bull. 62, Bur, Am. Ethnol., Wash. 1916. 

2 Max. length of 1st metacarpal x 100, 

Max. length of 1st metatarsal 
’ Max. length of 1st metarsal x 100, 
Bicondylar length of femur 

4 Dwight (Thos.)—Methods of estimating the height from parts of the skeleton. 
Med. Rec., Sept. 8, 1894. (Gives data for estimating stature also from length of 
sternum and that of the spine.) Manouvrier (L.)—Détermination de la taille d’aprés 
les os longs. Rév. Ec. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1892, I, 227.—La détermination de la taille 
d’aprés les grands os des membres. Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1893, Sér. 2, IV, 
347-411. Pearson (K.)—On the reconstruction of the stature of prehistoric races. 
Philos. Trans. R. Soc., London, 1899 (Mathematical); CXCII, Ser. A, 169-244. 
Rollet (E.)—La mensuration des os longs des membres. These méd., Lyon, 1899 
(Similar to Manouvrier). Topinard (P.)—De la restitution de la taille par les os 
longs. Rev. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1885, VIII, 134.—Procédé des mensuration des os 
longs dans le but de réconstituer la taille. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. Paris, 1885, VIII, 
73-83. Also Eléments d’ Anthropologie générale (used maximum lengths throughout), 
Older data unreliable and lack precision of methods. 


142 ALES HRDLICKA 


The final estimate will be the more reliable the larger the series of 
subjects involved. Insingle individuals the error, as Dwight has shown, 
may be very considerable, particularly in tall males (up tol1.9 cm.). 

The author obtained the following correspondences between the 
humerus and stature in 354 male and 82 female dissecting room indi- 
viduals, Whites, 22-25 years of age, and where both humeri could be 
measured. 








Ve byes! 
Mean Length of Humerus, in Percentage of Stature: a 
17.7 18.1 to 18.6 to 
18.5 19 19.1 to 19.6 to 20.1 to 20.6 to 21.1 to 
19.5 20 20.5 21 21.6 
Percent of Bones 

















Males ae: 1.4 | 41:7 204.3 MO oe nD 3.7 1.1 
Females...... | 12.2 | 20.7 | 31.7 | 183 | 98 73 ey 


MANOUVRIER’S TABLES SHOWING THE CORRESPONDENCE OF BoNE LENGTHS AMONG 
THEMSELVES AND WITH STATURE 


Males 

Humerus Radius UlIna Stature Femur Tibia Fibula 
cm. cm. cm. em. cm. cm. cm. 
295 213 227 1,530 392 319 318 
298 216 231 1,552 398 324 323 
302 219 235 L571 404 330 328 
306 222 239 1,590 410 335 333 
309 225 243 1,605 416 340 338 
313 229 246 1,625 422 346 344 
316 232 249 1,634 428 onl 349 
320 236 253 1,644 434 357 353 
324 239 Aig § 1,654 440 362 358 
328 243 260 1,666 446 368 363 
332 246 263 1,677 453 ole 368 
336 249 266 1,686 460 378 373 
340 252 270 1,697 467 383 378 
344 255 273 1,716 475 389 383 
348 258 276 1,730 482 394 388 
352 261 280 1,754 490 400 393 
356 264 283 1,767 497 405 398 
360 267 287 1,785 504 410 403 
364 270 290 1,812 512 415 408 
368 273 293 1,830 519 420 413 

Mean Coefficients for bones shorter than those shown in the Table: 
5.25 1 OCT J 6.68 1 RS OD et SORT re 
Mean Coefficients for bones longer than those shown in the Table: 

4.93 1 Ge 010 yale, 5 6.26 501) Coen ee 2 nO On Ree eae | whaF 


To determine from this table the stature of the living, add 2 mm. to each length; 
take the mean of the resulting statures, and subtract 2 mm. from the final height 
thus obtained. 


1 Dwight found that a large proportion of the errors with the Manouvrier tables 


was due to this subtraction, and advocates that this recommendation be not followed. 
It should be stated by the worker whether or not it was followed. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 143 


MANOUVRIER’S TABLES SHOWING THE CORRESPONDENCE OF BONE LENGTHS AMONG 
THEMSELVES AND WITH STaTURE—Continued 


Females 


Humerus Radius Ulna Stature Femur Tibia Fibula 
cm. cm. cm. cm. em. cm. cm. 
263 193 203 1,400 363 284 283 
266 195 206 1; "420 368 289 288 
270 197 209 1,440 373 294 293 
273 199 212 1,455 378 299 298 
276 201 215 1,470 383 304 303 
279 203 217 1,488 388 309 307 
282 205 219 1,497 393 314 311 
285 207 222 Los 398 319 316 
289 209 225 1,528 403 324 320 
292 211 228 1,543 408 329 325 
297 214 231 1,556 415 334 330 
302 218 235 1,568 422 340 336 
307 222 239 1,582 429 346 341 
31a 226 243 1,595 436 352 346 
318 230 247 1,612 443 358 351 
324 234 251 1,630 450 364 356 
329 238 254 1,650 457 370 361 
334 242 258 1,670 464 376 366 
339 246 261 1,692 471 382 371 
344 250 264 1 7 15 478 388 376 

Mean Coefficients for bones shoreas than those shown in the Table: 
5.41 ene | 7,00" | : PPS 8i [et 4 Soe 488 
Mean Coefficients for bones longer than those shown in the Table: 
4.98 fier CUR a O.4902) Wve oat | S58) 1 8442 06 [452 
ADDENDA 


MEASUREMENTS OF TEETH 


To express the proportionate size of the crowns of the premolars 
and molars to that of the skull in different races, Flower compared 
the distance from the front of the first premolar to the back of the 
last molar in situ, with the distance from the front of the foramen 
magnum to the naso-frontal suture (basi-nasal length), in the form of 
a “dental index.” — 


_ Length of teeth x 100 


T 
a Basi-nasal length 


= Dental index, 
and by this means he has divided the various races into mierodont 
(index 42° to 43, Europeans, Egyptians, etc.), mesodont (index 43 to 
44, Chinese, American Indians, Negroes, etc.), and macrodont (index 
44 and upwards, Australians, Melanesians, etc.).! 

1Flower (W. H.)—On the size of the teeth as a character of race. J. Anthrop. 


Inst. 1885, xiv, 183-187. See also Cunningham (D. J.)—Textbook of Anatomy, 3d 
ed., 1909, 1029. 


144 ALES HRDLICKA 


Individual Teeth.—Valid measurements can be secured only on teeth 
that are normal and unworn (or worn only so that the dimensions we 
want to measure are not affected). 

Incisors: Main measurements—The total length of the tooth, and 
the greatest breadth of the crown (at right angles to the long axis of 
the tooth). Additional measurements are the maximum antero- 
posterior diameter of the crown (at its base), the minimum breadth of 
the crown (also at its base), and the height of the crown (in median 
line on the labial surface). 

Canines: Principal measurements—Total length, and height of 
crown (in median line, labial surface). A useful measurement is that 
of the total displacement of the tooth, in glycerine, oil or other liquid, 
in a graduated small jar or tube. 

Premolars and molars: Essential measurements—Maximum height 
(with axis of the tooth vertical); length and breadth. The length and 
breadth measurements of these teeth are not as easy to make as might 
at first appear, which is particularly true of the anterior premolar in 
some of the lower forms of mammals. The most satisfactory rule is 
to measure the length along the median antero-posterior axis of the 
tooth as it lies or lay in the jaw; and the breadth at right angles to 
this axis. 

The above measurements on individual teeth are of value both 
anthropologically and phylogenetically; but due to the care with which 
they must be taken and the time involved in getting the specimens, 
they should be reserved for special investigations. 

The teeth of man, even more than any of his other structures, call 
for careful comparative work on Primates and lower mammals. 


MEASUREMENTS OF BRAIN 


Uniformity in brain measurements is equally as desirable as uni- 
formity in the measurements of other parts of the body; but no at- 
tempt has yet been made at their international definition and regula- 
tion. Each author so far has followed his own inclinations, with the 
result that outside of weight but little comparison of the measurements 
is possible. 

The brain“is not an easy organ to measure. Due to its softness, 
from the moment it is exposed it tends to sag down more or less 
according to the condition of the body and the temperature, and it 
may readily be deformed if not given the best of care in preservation. 
Yet measurements that could be used for comparison both within and 


ANTHROPOMETRY 145 


beyond the human phylum are highly desirable, and every effort 
should be made in this direction by those favorably situated for such 
studies. 

The most common and easiest of brain measurements is the weight. 
The brain is weighed without the dura mater, immediately after extrac- 
tion. Should any excess of liquid be evident, allow 5 to 15 minutes 
for drainage. If the main component parts are to be weighed separ- 
ately use care in severing. 

As to other measurements of the organ, in 1901! the author proposed 
a sensible scheme which he regards as the simplest, the most promis- 
ing and the only universally applicable system so far suggested. It 
relates essentially to the cerebrum, and consists of taking the maximum 
antero-posterior diameter of each hemisphere as a basis and a hori- 
zontal, to which all other measurements are referred as so many 
verticals. Under this system each part of the brain and each loca- 
tion may be readily expressed or shown in a percentage of the hori- 
zontal, which gives us valuable data for comparison. The choice of 
the points from which to draw the verticals depends on the object of 
the study, but the principal points will doubtless become standardized 
by use, as well as by future agreements. 

The method of procedure is simple. The appliance needed is a 
frame, the lower part of which consists of an adjustable platform for 
the cerebrum or a hemisphere, while the upper part resembles the rod 
of the sliding compass. It is graduated, and along it slides a needle 
which may be lowered or elevated as required. The observer ascer- 
tains with due care the frontal and the occipital poles, adjusts the 
platform of his frame so that the line connecting these points is hori- 
zontal, brings the frontal pole lightly into contact with the vertical 
part of the frame on the left (his zero), sees to it that the axis of the 
brain or hemisphere is parallel to the graduated rod above, marks on 
the hemisphere or hemispheres the points to which he wishes to 
measure and proceeds with the measurements. The up er part of the 
frame holding the needle is movable backwards and forwards so as to 
permit the bringing of the needle vertically over the different points 
from which the measurements are to be taken. 

In the above way each measurement is like a section of the hemis- - 
phere and hence of its basic horizontal, and can readily be contrasted 
with the whole. We are comparing then antero-posterior segments of 
the brain, rather than simple linear dimensions. 


1 An Eskimo Brain. Am. Anthrop., N.S., III, 454-500; also 8° N. Y., 50 pp. 
10 


146 ALES HRDLICKA 


The lateral and height measurements may, if desired be obtained 
similarly; and the length, breadth and height diameters may be supple- 
mented by such surface arcs as may be deemed of importance. 

The measurements may be taken on a fresh brain, but as there is 
always more or less sagging, it is preferable to take them on hardened 
specimens, in which the relative proportions of the parts will, if the 
specimen has not been deformed, remain the same as they were in 
the fresh brain.! The best specimens however for measurement are 
brains hardened in situ by near-freezing (temporary), or by 5 to 10 
per cent formalin injections. 

In all cases it is important to ascertain the endocranial maximum 
length (on each side), as well as the maximum breadth of the cranial 
cavity (lined by dura). These correspond to the measurements of the 
brain before extraction. 


INTERNAL ORGANS 


No system of measurements has as yet been devised for the internal 
organs. 

The weight is ascertained as a rule, and should further measurements 
be desired they would naturally include where possible the greatest 
length, breadth and thickness, with the displacement (or capacity), 
of the organ. | 

The study of the internal organs is greatly hindered by pathological 
alterations, notwithstanding which it is of considerable anthropological 
importance.? 

PLASTER CASTS 


In demonstrations and museum exhibits, as well as in original 
investigations, an important part is played by good casts. An ideal 
collection in physical anthropology ought to include a representation 
in good facial and other casts of every important branch and group of 
humanity. As it is, there is no institution that possesses casts of the 
various racial divisions of even the Whites alone. Nor could there be 
made as yet in any institution with an anthropological section an 
exhibit of any one nation, illustrating physical and developmental 
types, and such groups as that of the most beautiful individuals, the 
greatest athletes, the most talented men and women in that nation. 
More has really been done in this respect on primitive peoples than on 

1 For hardening brains see Hrdli¢ka (A.)—Brains and Brain Preservatives. Proc. 


U.S. Nat. Mus., 1906, XXX, 245-320b, 27 fig. 
2 Compare Bean (R. B.)—Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1919, II. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 147 


those more civilized; but there is everywhere an opportunity for much 
further endeavor. 

If an opportunity to make casts is limited, choose only adults of 
middle age; otherwise extend the work to all age groups. Very 
interesting series also are afforded by whole families. 

Casts are made from plaster of paris. Efficiency in making casts is 
best acquired under aninstructor. The process of making a facial cast, 
given here for those who may have a chance to practice it, is as follows: 

Have the subject seated comfortably on a chair. See that the face 
preserves its most natural expression, the eyes being open, and warn 
the subject against moving, swallowing, coughing, sneezing or spitting. 
The features and lips should not be tight or puckered or the mouth 
distorted; endeavor to have the subject think of something peaceful, 
agreeable. Fasten a wide, ample piece of cloth on the neck of the 
subject; it should be long enough to cover his feet to prevent soiling 
by plaster. Brush hair backward without pulling the skin and fasten 
by moderately tightly applied band about 23 inches broad, leaving but 
little hair exposed over the forehead and temples. Work into this 
exposed hair, and also into the eyebrows mustache and beard, enough 
soap paste to prevent inclusion into plaster. Use commercial green 
soap, or boil ordinary soap with water until the liquid thickens. 
Introduce a little cotton into each ear. Oil lightly with camel hair 
brush whole face and neck using light paraffin oil or any other non- 
viscid oil; also oil the hair band. Care must be exercised that no 
excess of the oil is left anywhere and that nothing enters the eye. 
This finishes the preparation. No nasal tubes. 

The next step consists in mixing the plaster. Only the best dental 
or alabaster plaster should be used. Fill small basin with luke- 
warm or at least not too cold water, and add a pinch of common salt 
for quicker setting (if needed). Sift plaster on top of water by hand, 
without mixing, until moment when plaster stops sinking—the exact 
stage is learned from practice. Mix then without churning, with 
common spoon gather surface bubbles and dirt, and the liquid of 
cream consistency is ready for use. 

The first layers of plaster are applied to the forehead, about the eyes 
and over the upper part of the face with the help of a little spoon 
or a spatula. The excess of the plaster flows down over the face and 
on to the apron, or the plaster basin which is held underneath. 

The upper part of the face being covered, advance to ears and lower 
part of face. Fill one ear only, but carry plaster around far enough 


148 ALES HRDLIGKA 


to show fully location of other ear. If plaster begins to thicken, 
strengthen what is already on without employing the slightest pressure, 
and make or have made rapidly a new supply, slightly thicker than 
the first. Then with the help of spatula or spoon and still avoiding 
pressure cover whole face. 

While cast is drying add gently more about eyelids, taking again 
care to use no pressure and especially not to get any plaster into 
subject’s eye where it would cause burning. Add also, if necessary, 
more plaster about nostrils. On the ear that is covered carry plaster a 
little over convex border. 

Strengthen cast over forehead and median line of face; thickness of 
cast should range from about one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch. 

When through with application of plaster, post yourself behind 
subject and gently support his head until cast is sufficiently hard. 
During hardening plaster will generate warmth, but this never becomes 
too inconvenient or dangerous. 

Proper hardness of cast is learned through experience; it can be 
ascertained by tapping it with a finger or some harder object. 

Removal may begin before hardening is complete at the hair ribbon, 
which is slowly drawn backward. Then proceed all along the edge of 
the cast and press skin back from it. Free helix of covered ear and 
draw ear backward. All this can be begun quite early to occupy 
subject’s attention and satisfy him and it may be carried on so slowly 
that the plaster has ample time to harden. To take cast off, lay left 
hand on its top, grasp with the right its chin part, manipulate slowly 
and carefully up and down, and push and pull downward and forward 
until it slips off. 

There is occasionally some difficulty on account of the beard or very 
large malars; or the subject may have tried to swallow or cough or 
has moved so that a part of the cast is cracked or imperfect; or a 
portion of the cast may be broken off through haste or maladroitness 
in removing it. All that can be advised in such contingencies is 
patient manipulation, or careful repair by fitting the separated parts 
and adding plaster to the outside of cast. 

The finished cast is allowed to dry thoroughly, after which it is 
ready for packing. Mark on surface with sharp point whatever data 
are essential to go with cast. Pack carefully and tightly. 

In this manner, after due preliminary practice, from eight to ten first 
class facial casts can be made in a day. To take a cast of the whole 
head is difficult and has no advantage. With a good facial cast, 


ANTHROPOMETRY 149 


photographs and measurements, the head can be modelled almost to 
perfection. 

Casts of the body should never be undertaken except by one well 
practised in the art, for the operation is not without danger to the 
subject. Casts of the lower part of the trunk and the limbs need 
experienced hands. The skin must in all instances be well oiled and 
the part to be cast must not be deformed by wrong position or pressure. 
A provision for the removal of the cast in sections is a necessity and 
is usually done by including in the first layer of plaster, along the line 
of intended separation, a linen thread and by cutting the cast with 
this as it begins to harden. The preparation of the plaster and other 
details are practically the same as in facial casting. 

In packing casts, pad well and tightly with very dry hay or other 
suitable substance, and use only smaller boxes or barrels. In especially 
important cases, and where the casts are to be transported a great 
distance, individual little boxes for each cast, a number of which is 
then packed in a larger case, are of great advantage. 


ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICES. 


Under the term ‘index’ in anthropometry is understood the percental 
relation of two measurements. It is habitual to use the smaller 
measurement as the dividend and the larger as the divisor, so that 
the index is usually less than 100. 

The index is the simplest expression of the geometric relation of two 
dimensions and as such is of much utility for the prompt conveyance 
of a notion as to the shape or relative size of parts. The index in 
general is also more permanent than the absolute dimensions of the 
parts, and therefore more valuable for group comparisons. 

Due to their usefulness and stability, the indices in anthropometry 
have almost from the beginning assumed a great favor as well as 
importance. For the same reasons also they have become greatly 
multiplied, and their value—particularly that of the cephalic index— 
has been sometimes overrated. No index, it is plain, can have more 
stability than the physiological and mechanical conditions that control 
the relation of the parts concerned; and as these conditions are not 
immutable, so the indices are subject to change. 

As in a large majority of cases the correlation of measurements is 
self-evident, there is a general agreement among workers as to the 
constituents of the indices; but in the course of time there have 
developed considerable differences of opinion as to the grouping of the 
indices and in the nomenclature of the resulting divisions. 


150 ALES HRDLICKA 


In the examination of any large group of people it will be found that 
each given index will show a rather extended range of variation. A 
certain part of this range will embrace the normal average, together 
with the normal oscillations of the index for the anthropologically 
purest part of that particular group; but as few larger ethnic groups 
to-day are free from admixture, it may safely be expected that a 
certain proportion of the indices obtained on the group will express 
aberrations. Such aberrations may be detected by a proper seriation 
and mapping out of the indices. But we are assisted in expressing 
them, as in expressing the differences in the indices of separate ethnic 
and even biologic groups, by definite subdivisions or classifications 
of the indices. That is why this subject has received so much atten- 
tion. 

But such classifications, to be of real value, should self-evidently 
be as little arbitrary as possible, and have the closest attainable relation 
to natural groupings. 

These facts were well recognized from the start in anthropology, 
and earnest efforts were made to arrive at the most logical classifica- 
tions. For guidance there were on the one hand the principal natural 
subdivisions or races of man, and on the other an augmenting and 
comprehensive supply of measurements. It could readily be seen that 
a classification of any index which would not harmonize with the 
distribution of the index in at least the principal groups of mankind 
would not be of any great utility. But it was also soon recognized 
that even the principal races of man were not in all respects far 
enough distant to give alone a sound basis for classification. It was 
then that recourse was had to mathematical procedure. By taking all 
the available indices on man regardless of racial subdivisions, ranges 
of indices could be obtained which applied to the human family as a 
whole; and these ranges gave certain averages as well as minima 
and maxima which could serve as bases of mathematical classification. 
From an insufficiency of data however and from other causes, there 
arose numerous individual differences of views among working anthro- 
pologists as to exactly where to establish the boundaries of the sub- 
divisions of the various indices, and also as to the best terms for the 
different subdivisions, which gave rise to a considerable confusion. 

To-day anthropology has ceased to regard the grouping and naming 
of the indices in the somewhat fetishistic hght in which it looked upon 
them before. The arithmetic and graphic presentation of the dis- 
tribution of each index has become the essential procedure in all 


ANTHROPOMETRY 151 


anthropometric work, and divisions with terms, which in the nature 
of things must always retain something of the arbitrary, are now 
employed more for convenience than of necessity. Stili, the classi- 
fication of the various indices and its terminology are useful, and 
some day will doubtless become subject to proper international agree- 
ments. 

In these pages no attempt will be made to treat the subject of anthro- 
pometric indices historically, or to give their different classifications. 
For these the student is referred to Broca’s Instructions, Topinard’s 
Eléments d’ Anthropologie générale,) Martin’s Lehrbuch, and similar 
publications in other languages. What will here be given with few 
exceptions are the most widely accepted and most frequently used 
indices, together with best known nomenclatures. 3 

There is no limit to other legitimate indices, as there is none to 
possible measurements; and any index, as any measurement, may 
assume more or less of anthropological value if obtained on sufficiently 
large series and groups of individuals or specimens. 


HEAD AND SKULL. 


Bx 100 Dolichocephaly..... up to 74.9 
Cephalic (and Cranial) Index— L —Mesocephaly............ 75-79.9 
Brachycephaly........... 80 and above. 
(On the skull the index is approximately 2 points lower than that on the head.)? 





H? X 100 


Mean Height Index (Cephalic and Cranial)— Mea ona 


Height—Length Index— 


aa —(of limited use). 


ey 


w T 
Height—Breadth Index— nee 


—(of limited use). 


3 
Cephalic (or Cranial) Module— ut sis 
; e Diameter bizygomatic maximum X 100 

Bence Tides (on Head Menton-Hair line diameter 

1 Which is particularly rich in historic notes, p. 364 et seq. 

2See on this point Topinard’s Hléments etc., 373; also Duckworth (W. L. H.)— 
J. Anat., Lond., 1917, LI, 167-179. 

§ Height, on head, from line connecting floor of auditory meatus to bregma; 
on skull, basion-bregma. Not directly comparable. 


152 ANTHROPOMETRY 
Menton-nasion height X 100 
Diameter bizygomatic maximum 


Menton-nasion height * 100 
Diameter bizygomatic maximum 


Facial Index (on Head) — 


Facial Index, Total (on Skull) — 


Alveolar pt.—nasion height #100 


Facial Index, Upper (on Skull) — Diameter bizygo malian 


Facial Angle—Angle between basion-alveolar point and alveolar point-nasion lines. 


Alveolar Angle—Angle between basion-alveolar point and alveolar point-subnasal 





point lines. 
: : Microseme..... up to 82.9 
Orbital Index— Moan height of ormite x 100 —Mesoseme .......... 83-88.9 
apa Megaseme ........... 89 and above. 
Bx 100 Leptorhninice cs eu eee up to 69.9 
Nasal Index: (on Head)— mee ——WIPSOTNINIG «a5. cs we he oat anes 70-84.9 
Platyrhiniés .o2. to. to ee 85 and above. 
B x100 Leptorninitass har. en up to 47.9 
Nasal Index: (on Skull)— L -—-WiesOrhinic. .. se ssc. Buen acme. 48-52.9 
Platyrbiice-is. a2 ces eee 53 and above. 
Ear Index: (on Head)— Bx 100 
Dolichouranic > <.\a'4 see ee ee below 110 
Palatal Index— By 5 1002 Nieaneaniie . eye s'S nce so ee Tk me ee ne ee eee 110-115 
Brachyuranic cs aside eee a eee above 115. 
Microdonticeie tse ee eee up to 41.9 
Dental Index— eet x 100 x mo ~~ Mesodonts 4. i435 2 ten eee 42-44 
hats Gewese Megadont: 2.8. i... sca ee above 44, 
BODY. 
aE : HS x 100 
Sitting Height Index— ares - a 


& 
Weight in grams 


mpc A ate ibat itachi} tge, Seeeg At Tay 


Diam. antero-posterior (mean) at nipple height * 100? 


Chest Index— Diam. lateral (mean) at same level 


Maximum external breadth of pelvis x 100 


Pelvis—Shoulder Index— Breadth of shoulders 


1 Distance in situ between most anterior point on Ist premolar and most posterior... 
point on normal 8rd molar. 

2 In female at the upper level of the 4th chondrosternal articulation. 

3 Between outer lips of iliac crests. 


ANTHROPOMETRY 153 


1 
BX 100: Foot Index— BX 100 


Hand Index— L L 








SKELETAL PARTS. 


Mean max. height of ossainnom. X 100 


ae ote ater Greatest external breadth of pelvis? 
Pelvic or Brim Index— 


Antero-post. diam. of superior strait x 100 Dolichopellic ....above 95 





rT — Mesatipellic. oo. eee. 95-90 
Greatest transverse breadth of the strait Bintycellicee fi OD! 
g = BX100_Dolichohieric......... up to 100 
ete L PIALVIICIION sc hie ess above 100 
: Brachykerkik ....less than 75 
Radio-Humeral Index— M2*- HOF radius X°00_ nfosatikerkike...... 2... 75-80 
oes - Dolichokerkik...... above 80. 
Bee Lof tibia (lessspine) X 100 __ Brachycnemic ....less than 83 
Tibio-Femoral Index— Bicondylar L of femur Dolichocnemic ...83 and over. 


Max. L of humerus X 100 
Bicondylar L of femur 


L of radius + L of humerus X 100 
Standard L of tibia + Bicondylar L of femur 


Humero-Femoral Index— 


Intermembrae Index— 


Diameter minor of shaft of humerus at middle < 100 


Platybrachic Index— Dinictedmaios 


eee Diameter minimum of shaft of tibia at middle x 100 
: Diam. maximum 








__ Diam. minimum at upper flattening of femur x 100 
Diam, maximum 


hen B, glenoid point to spine point < 100 
i ah L, glenoid point to inferior angle 
B, m. of outer border of glenoid fossa to spine point X 100 
L, from superior to inferior angle 
n- B X 100 
L, from spine point to inferior angle 


Greatest B of body x 100 
Total L with manubrium but without xiphoid 


ndex: Total— 
pinosus Index 
ernal Index— 


For other indices see text under the individual bones. 


1 For definition of measurements see text. 
2 Between outer lips of iliac crests. 


154 ALES HRDLICKA 


INDEX TABLES. 


To lighten the exacting and tedious work of calculating the indices, 
we now have a number of printed “Tables.”’ The best of these are 
those of Carl M. First (Index-Tabellen; 4°, Jena, 1902); but even 
these are not sufficient for all occasions and much work has to be 
done by each student himself. When a large number of indices are 
to be calculated for which no ready-made tables can be found, it 
pays to make such tables. 





A 
PeererPIn ERS OF ODRCLVAUION LEXIS: 6b. ko rev meee vou Bo grecd erty mtb erat ale & 82 
2 pa ONES ES OUI 6 HANI ay Mite gs Al ae agli AP Se Ahn mM ae Ce PURER Fe 28 
ETON DY c-. fc gee oat ahs dele Par I ote iN Oe ar EY 43 
PERTTAL ET CNCLPEDE RISTO ar ok or dt ee alo yous ho. SY aaa Nin ok) avaiocaatt h Care ate 43; 44 
PeIAMOTMOLTOIVAKCICUAL INATETIAL. 600 tree cia MGs. « 4 <2 0 ose ewig outer 96 
ee MINGLE LP LOTTO sh Unc Po ca pew La Sen btw ee 8s wiola a ve Caw yh aaaeet 10 
BPC CUE ReMi Ls wt Amy ES, «see bk Vera N AG a alee 10; 25 
fos Sn Gh, Waly Wri C00 ee Sr Aa i teen ed eof Re AO EC oe eee iar mer A 17; 18 
Monere MIOHSULeIM ei be -Olu Caran ae te Water. sso ao eae a 112 
oP CEES SVR Lc eS TSC URN ely Sena ger Fee a a a 105 
ae MMe NR Neg ie ads a BY ini dws Sa ee tink vie hw Hee Hh Pee: 28 
EERE INE ae PE Neen eee eee ag ORI rn Mariana Ae gin AE dant nde ipod nyccaven 53 
MRETE TELLICO eee need hn ie Ca yes LL ee tales Gah Seiad ids b's 36; 37 
Bucuropomeric Commissions, Of MOSCOW «ios... ok. sco’ vb pile celine melee as 12 
mmthropometry: Anthropological system Of. 0.5... ed eee ee eae ve etna ews 8 
REY IETI A Lee his Wh ieeee a's icp ue taiNe Bic wach Hein WEE Oa Ces ava le 8 
TULLE ATE] a bb 0 len OR ERR ee a CP ad Sa QO a a ri 
EOC RM an eg! Me SM er I eG. Glug ete « Uaciete rociae 7 
ie ACeN ES fe IE Sree ea selene ogy are sks ok ek oteanin ddale ie 8 
PCOS yal PO dS a URC OD oS an Sah See OU CR ORES a eae Ce 49 
ERD a ashe Sas hs ha liye cv hyna, we makak bead tee ees 9; 13 
SPST ACEUN EME BET ae (oF taioe pidlat ic tie & oi ask a aah ge OE eae 9 
POE RRO eR Pe Se peg alent a's cao eis ans anos SOREROS «5 Sa 8 
EMG CET IMT Peet lake cele cet oir hiss oO MaRS ENG 6 Oe 8 
Sere ITI MLLV ER reco hin aoe Ba Apt es Ses eth ak ot ee naan» LOE 8 
SET PEERIC ELIE Ui lees tt hich ar oe MP ARS ee co Mc 5, Ce 34 
ONSET UES 6 USE Ee A Seat oaee 4. Joly aie a ae ana SARI Se NORE Oy 8 
BVT ARREELE Gites ee ate Oh OR A Bi liky cE. 3 ih ch bmeeoue so. 2 a ahete 8 
BOT UIE Oe neat Osc te ee. oo ais un SE eee gd tS 52 
PIPCCISIO IT ee eet tier ea seCnncty SMM .. y 2, ig trslietias ete write oe 34 
IPED Ea IO Ott ee ear yee ei oi ea ac ep a, ae mabe 37 
jaye verate iD bag? Me AieeyM i lining gala Miaiiy SI" 87 Sd, COM aa Cl oe 38 
coeeay el PCG Lay qa hs poe ebayer Sane Rruatagoe- gf. One Fat aN Gh Ae eRORAS RSP 34; 36 
SUT TBI bl So 0k pees Eo Sey tains gle pict aman 2 eas Oa eS Maytenge 32 
OE rei a ST Tee ain hae Bane Bae IY Le oa Shah aeRO gael aie 105 
Astragalus, measurements and observations. ........... 0... cece eee een eee 138 
(Pete SPI AY 9 CSRS 1 CG vee Coa Wee aR. gre RE RA 27 
B 
Ne er nh kG oro IES cre sR BORE CANS ere ee i Ok Eee 85 
STEN ATILUPO LOIN GLTIO rates os ho On a eee ee cite te ae ee ea vite 40 
PMID. GL er eee kt ee Sr Se RATE oe eR RE oad 63; 65 
PCr AITIOUIe Tee) Sr etenet Gn Bue tal ae eater amty ote tea Nine She coe eee 104 
155 


156 INDEX 


Blanks: for the living. 20. i fsNias se suige nan ey) ee 62 

osteometric . ois l eg eee eel ee ae ee 120 et seq. 

| te) h UE eee ry eo re Me ane RECO Tt ee Tee 87 

measurements Of jf)... cnt se Ree hl tek Bales ole ple aials tn vi) bee ee 88 

Bones: deformations in33. os os oe dsu'e o 6 cae bcc sea ook ene ee 102 

forms, ‘causes Of 5553. seks dine oe nae wold Lise ro alten ee 125 

LONG wi Eos bis ba aS < sjo denne bla eer a aa k woe oe Ae ati e ae oe 121 

MLOTMAL . 50s Lea Ns been eee Pe Lah ef ota ee 101 

observation: 001, J. 20i5 8 \e carlein eee si ca alee a 120; 126 

sexual differences Im 63°). vies sus ws oies el ese ova eee at ne 94 

typical shapes Of so. s0 i ss0s dais aad aie aves bea oes ee ee 120 

Boxes, for field ‘works. ciee..< sw ewlehcdd uk ws ee Ws Secleeeee tees eae eee 50 

Brain, measurements. O15. 5 ecc5-cs < eccselve bod eed hc ee ae 144 

BOSS oasis dave bea) Gente 4 wien & gi cstbebale toners bo eee apie cP oe ae 0 eee 87 
C 

Calcaneus, measurements and observations............0ccce cece cece cee eees 137 

Maliners: large sliding |... (420i c.4 eee ee co cs ee 57 

BLdING 5. oS cos 5 os to a OR tat eal te tae oe 57 

SPAIN fn Upc eke Eile Say es Vaan ek ee ed ne 55 

Cameras oo... hi PO SP a oe ee 50 

Capacity of skulls: 266 oe eee ee eee 19 

methods of measuring } ).-.. 5.4) ces oe ee 107 

Cast making |.) 9i60 8S cack 5 oes Sab Rceia BA Sete etn Oe ee 48; 146 

Chest, measurements Of 0 bon sei cas os ot wet ee eg ee ea 76 

Chim ee es ie ey slic ain ce 2h 27; 86 

Circumference: of arm; i)s<. sais Fe aarlone eas aes tee ieee 30 

Of Toate ye SEEN ae le ee ee 31 

Of TOTEAPM 2 yids uc Sawa ne nd 6 tk euler ee bee Se 30 

of hand 66 6s Se he VEG ee ee 30 

rt at ee eS MA 30 

of neek owes cays Os lee Se etal Sateen ree ee 30 

of skull io 35. 6.55... Sie eite Che Pe eee oe ee 19 

Of thigh 20%. oa ciate ols Shas dew ps sek ee ee 30 

of thorax: ¢ o-.°. os visa tha eee 1 eA aie Rae Se eon 30 

Of waists 1.8) Se VAG ens alee be ee 30 

Clavicles » & o:00)ssie’s orc 8 CLG 6 PDE es ed PE Pre ne a ee ee 132 

Collignon (R.) oi. Pies ote POR Se de a 9 

Companions. ii. .o 55578 eke eke cee © eh Geen ne ee 50 

Compass: large sliding: 3.505 cicwvs 6 odes eae oe otek se ee ae 57 

sliding 2 ool as oes ea Qe ha a ten it he ae ed 57 

~ Spreading 2460s aw ee st 55 

Craniometric Commission, of Moscow. 0°...) J .cnies we cas ov os oe ss cs 12 

Craniometry: 2h fo.cie wie-4 oa wale acne ee neat ea ae eae ee 14; 89 
(See Skull, measurements of) 

Crests, occipital Yo 2 2 soe 5 ae ser a oe oe ed bie Ae ot aie re 93 

Crimionig 3b ie ee ot Rs NE ee eb RGR Or 72 

Cuboid, measurements and observations. ......)......01% sles ocew seate eeee 139 

Cuneiform, Internal: measurements and observations...................0. 140 


INDEX 157 
D 
CMV eres en Reena Pere ea tae, ae Ph a aad Cee wate wa lad Cae ae ERO aid 105 
SOUP RULNTONOTOLIICS APeAtiInent Of ox... boa ewon wewaud ols ta he os anes 36 
MURR TILES STMT TIO os a oo rs, os nw Pia Peete ee Udy ts OR OA Sed 47 
TRICE cars dou ores nce ts ae me tay CO a Se 46; 47; 101 
REC DOTIOR Foe dh ac ieee ay ea APRS Oy a Oe, ae a heal 102 
PAD AS CONE a (0 ade as SMe aisle ly g Sill. PI = Rae SMe ta pn, Ne esha 47 
POSCRIUL TOUS 28 ies sear TR earn His SPR rental ty olla tae seston sted ay 47; 101 
OD UAT EAVES 2 peed gla ae Ak Uae RUN SP ee OR A PEER ee Meo 46 
MeanIeEs © ANLerO-TOSteriOr OF LOOTAR ss cae ai us ve boos ee ed ee 29 
PRISRCECIOTAL eo Aas e Pa rc td tact aed ree Se ets ein ie lace hays san «Oe ay 28 
econo y ist OF LCMUM ir ne tes AG eee 6 oo ats ecm ee 6 ee ik 30 
BH-CONU VIO’: OL: UUINGYUS occ one te ate tat sels ng bial, ores oh ete 30 
PCTIBEAL rape ee erate ei oe RT in es vin pele eK ie reese 29 
BSeTiLICI Orel pe ry en na he Me ee i SY cla x SS etee aad, bd 29 
Diet UO AT cert St niele sag oY OR sig i> s Grad annie GW ne eialene 30 
WU CMTEASICIILLAT ie hee ee OR at te ae ete. sha eat ene Ciciaint Ls + ees 29 
TPAD tee ee Merten ome ci Oy ante the AM as se Whe g) epee 29 
BERG ADIL tee Oe ee et a ae as a EN Oo id we Goals 30 
PEP OCIA LET ICtt cg ete Cry ci re heal Hee aey’ iors ee ene ented Ke MR ee 29 
AVI OL: POLY 1515 ce hele ain pe Roy ore sim co nee ahs ¢ Rata 29 
TEN AVETES OL LDOTAR G cic an id ee Fe Ee Ae Se ea es ban 29 
CEE RSTO UCD wen eve pede RS tes st IGE ONO Fo Da cick <h HE LS ee DU Gk 58 
E 
Me IIICORUEEINON LG Citar hee le es 2 roy ais Oe wile ceoinie od ieleon ee Tees 24; 75 
OLS eee dl) Hb de I, SS Pn a a 87 
Ase me ee ret Pee Me re OE ST RS Rul iore sg atglaw urageal abaepriee ie # ove 28 
ME EIIO MISO IITOU ee ON ee) Seta ay bly tas ein arin, ¢ KSigkaalete beds « «ohh 23 
eT rt ee ee Pe PA NS ge ey Sige cosh esie wales ole Klas 0 Va clea Coup de wo «oa 85 
ee ea rE SNC eas ais a4 OER oleae Sia Rk ae da sO Eten Sis tos bs oS 59 
VLE CME TE een oh ace ec ira eh ea Ri dd k's 6 Wake « enn, b4.+ 9 GR 83 
ee a ee tes aie yee esti yh areata alae: vc cake ee ee laine « wae’ 83 
F 
PM MCETIDASUTETIGI (Ole oe Nutct 3 rss tee eet bole e RDA odo Any Lee weld Me eee 72 
I CHEMIVIN Escuela te bles el nies 21; 22 
SCOTT R AIL Leen tree Pere R Se ol sa he REE RS 02 Cavin Sek Le wees 73 
BUCA CAITIOLOD See te rare hf eR MRE, on Oe baa eR 73 
GI OTEeO CEINOT rere ses Sc ars vl MN ae eens aly is Gosche g oho ew ee 73 
SEL Suerte tae ee cr ak a See EASES OSS COE BT oe PE 72 
ARAL ENTE SS Setter) buon dle eae Ob ey ra are BPR ar agro Pe 16 
SOA ULUUICCH Metre ee NL, Cok PMA ES og siecle pee eS dace eee w aks tikee 128 
Femur, measurements and observations............. 000: c ccc e eee cece eens 128 
Ng Ee 8) Boge, 8 bos pa ee I REIT Ore Deane IG SOD ey ee pecs ad 122 
Hibnia; measurements and observations: 6.06.5 .6.0c0che bbe eee ee ieee eenwes 130 
LY DCMT Ee Fre tn CET Sa LEM CAT Ee ATOR OTR LS areca hs 122 
RT OMOT IC OKO LOT ate atta at. a Sig Gi Ses Ges, oes ae Wie SIDE wae were Mea wk lees 50 


158 INDEX 


Hield “work, transportation $5310) «a5 aches wn tara tose eee vor 49 
Finger, middless 5, ON Goa Gs odes Che URGES Een GE enna ay ee 28 
Fingers. 5 556% 2s ies Sheena Gah olde a Game eee 87 
Foot, bones, measurements and observations. ...........ccc eevee ecevevees 141 
meastrements Of e055). 54% Kae ce bee hee Soo vse ona: UR ee 31; 79 
Foramen. lacerum ‘medium 3495522 aa sa as we oe ed ee 116 
OT ATNOD TAQ. sy se sy esas eal is glock da cee alloy nee ED 18 
BOPCHE AG. eso Sees a ata ee ees hare sis eae Paeeosta oO GEOR ob OE 85 
Frankfort agreement 24.5. 05i.:5/j pian vin eralete whe steipl als (aba: gradalasl pratt a rOe i be ee 9; 13 
G 
General considerations. ins... deci cn nao res Aso 4 ae ee ee 34 
Geneva, International agreement on anthropometry...............000c cece 25 
Glabatla osc. oie. ok hata on ow bin ein ade doe Cae es hes ee 105 
Gmathions su F hon ed itn See hip BP ot Pk a ge a ee ae 105 
MONON 5 Gio es aco scul aS 5 seep Go sca sn tae Nat Re aim ase en eC 105 
Grouping, instructions Ile. gece fe eo eek Lees oie ae he ee ee ee 43 
H 
Fa ar sos eo as ie leans eee be boc, rarcak we Ros ie ae as Pe 59 
characteristics OF 33°) isis. ole ig foese hese ab ne ee . 84 
COLOT OF oasis fon a dhe eel ced: we ope coin aieeioca ok ules ad ae ee a 84 
Hand, bones, measurements and observations. ..............0ce cece eee eues 140 
measurements Of 25.2 6:4 js.a:0lnyedioe ba pete oe hn al ee 30; 77 
Head, measurements of (3.02.53 Hats ody bans tee ee 21; 68 
breadth Foo dos aid secs wv ed Re hal a tle RD a ae a 69 
diameter frontal minimum oo. 2o so as pees ees eee 73 
WGig NG i Ss Veto oe a ahs be bt ah Volos ee et ce er 70 
Fength «ss s.g atk nce We SR wa ee Oe oo se oe 68 
height of forehead 2235/52 es Fa is ei cece ee 73 
Height, shermal | 72 io oo se FP als are se ae onc aa a ape 30 
£0 the shoulder go5 ve. nek & vies ete-vbs ook eek usa crite ae ak ne ee 67 
to the suprasternal notch... ¢siwg cag oe ee ee oe 66 
focal: Svea Moa ai bs ac yo a Vane wie OURS NT eon eke acer eee tok 27 
Heredity, in bone forms 6 oe. < wien tae ee ees pe era ae 125 
Humero-femoral index sc). 6 <a). sd ins bce cecende babel ty oe) eee 128 
Humerus, measurements and observations... .......... cece eee e ee ee ee eee 126 
hig ct Se CEM CRRA Peer nS 124 
I 
Identification, of skeletal remains and parts. .........0.<..0:34.+y.> oe 100 
Indices, anthropometrie 537 <).5.)5 5 Fo oe ves croton a erat be ee 149 
[h/t (0) | Dee eo Pee en OOM PMOL Ry Rein ee 105 
Innominate index 5). ice «dies a arecia/sie, Ski, EDS ast a aif ea 135 
Instruments: anthropometer .. .. 2 sss eee one nee ee ee 53 
anthropometric, :s) 2 x<'s,cicnie ss Mele cin ie en <a 34 
attention Wi... nce caked Lupiomie oe a aks sae 38; 39 
ell en nA aren kom eee 54 


BrrUImeniLa> COMNASE PUSSIOLO 4.5 at aay Pe ade LIGE Pore SEU ROR Es 14; 57 
BPATTICUEOaer ts Serre Sn on ke PRE OU oa Re ee 103 
PURE LOD eget ik She at sets otras ka Re tenes RE 58 
PETITE OP ee eee ies Sy ek My A gre Ate eit De ee 38 
PIRIMIVORL PLANO) Fas ot eo cet oe Ke ee 54 
PETS SHUI COMORES aces co 4 ics one eRe ae Oe RL ee 57 
WICRrIC LANG a a he eee p arenes el aeons ee ah Aree 14 
ORLCOMICLEIG whe et rae A. hs ec A ee Bee Scene 118 
TUSTE -ATLUNTOPOMNELLIG 52 2 bik serie sla ee reed ns ie oad 52; 53 
TD ATICE LEVEL: © oh ecaeh ns ermine Seen we Pa aeaiaie Bc teish boas hes 55 
RIOR Pere eta sn Caan, aioe RE a Meg oh og, ah eee 58 
BUATIONICL, DOCK 62 ocr era ees © en wie sega eg! 58 
MIECLAT CL INICLOR eee (one te eon are a Pee eae <<, bai heey hors Cle ae oe 58 
RIACIAPCS LOM COMES si a) oa, AE otis Poe es oe eee tan es 59 
REP ee Ae et See ae ee een Eda ook ee ine Lawn ae ot 58 

Peer TIETOTE ANT COTMION GG.) 0-0 eas 3 eee oS wk oe, EB bh ee 6 
era Ul eer awa sete Me eae oo. te Rae eee Sw ENO As 9 

K 
PLR SE iat Ey GR tice Ae Nala 2 a a AL 20) A oa a 28 
L 
STEN enn er RETA Bee AT ce gee Nes Sue eh ies CARS 106 
PeIIIAC KATA ee Batre Se din he de ee cow ee ly oe ad eR ASS 39 
eA TEES AS TELS ays SU takes ot ey a Oe ik 8 SOIL te RSC GRR ea tsa SO 105 
PRL DMI Comte sere 2 he ec des een ON ney Cay <hudey Sone ee 62 
eemenenm Ee Iieaitr One ween ooh ere eee rca ates oF oak oe ho Gks Ree Pal 81 
SRL Ct eee eh ae ecg oe Pt A A Ry it aig we abetted dv whe we 87 
Pree CE IGMP OM EMR Pele gare a ie a ate ae Me Kereta es GLa ao 
a mr TS ee ee ews ee a Sop. va ordi. cie dae wee ok Coke ea 6 61 aeee 86 
UAE UIDICR ODMR No eiave Spire cL ate ay take, Fe Sak OM ROA May «twee 86 
Peto Veo) GyTS Tia 12 Deals ae aaa ee ae Aegan 19; 20; 21; 112 
Be ee Terese Ttk ovate co 55° ett aires g ck ae acai AE is o's » Shae 93 
IESTIVULVOLLEL Hie eta tate eos Cee iodo Sk ic eee ia a ins Mba 116 
M 
ei rer ara Ue ene NS le Res Shi ac hese aia ateb ad weak Oe 86 
CRC AV CSUCEIDS fee tte ie eS earn | oe gh Se ee res Re as 115 

ReREeE Te ADEPT Chen rt ree eee Neon et APS, AG pk ocd Sip kis me 21; 86 

Manouvrier, tables of, for reconstruction of stature...............00000- 142; 143 

PURSE eM A rey eee ge cca SS aie wy SN Mtetacd Odi ele ae 113 

BE CUAL Cre CCR TOL arate te ne ts a cs Fd hg When eatkca saee as 93 

1 PALLET Sur EST TYG EES lta ag PRS Pini eect ON kc) ak RR We SIR ER EE ea 18 

Pei OGCCINGAL DONG raters ih oct. 1. S717 ee endemic adag bose Civ lw em ee 106 

PARUOCTTIE Tite TAD C OR srr fo eee Ao atte k,l wn "a sR Le oe Sevan Roe Le 8 

Ley Uy TAFT hs the Ay sp aa SS age RONG AN aL hig a BN ag a CO RTD oe SO 13 
MPCEE OR DLOCEOIIT Os. <biny yet tieen ohe ale Me Lbs Oe is ok Gita a « 82 
BOL CE CLO TIONS Seno rire Cat Rae i SE Oa Sk I TT 60 


160 INDEX 


Metatarsals, measurements and observations............ 4a Ns 141 
Meter standard 2.526025 ee Wee aid ae ae Cae es ea OOP ee ee 58 
Mixed bloods”, ssetath ces oop be SRS en eg Eo a ee ne 44; 45 
rdentification-OL... ce 4b sc aan eh ee tee see nee ee 45 
Mixtures, racial; . ons fsceu 9-9 Gt 6.0 bs i Pe te eres Oe eee eee 44; 45 
TECOMNITION OFF. Ae <colF dorsi Sete vier ate vod pt ee 45 
Monaco, International agreement on anthropometry..............- a ee 10 
Moscow, attempts at, for unification of anthropometric methods............ 9; 12 
Mouth, measurements Of 55.4.0. in lene Or eee oe Coe a ee 23; 75 
N 
Nasal aperture, lower borders of, descriptive terms. ............0.00ceeeeeee 115 
DYIGPG eee os coat achat Wes Oh ae ie ici niece te ee 86 
Ope: or, NC GAR oe ak coe ee Dae che ee ie oe 86 
Bpine, descriptive SetMms. acl. picts oe eee ee 115 
MEPS ON Pe ls oe a os ROR they eee Ete ae a rly oe RG te 72; 106 
depression in the living . | 20 0hsucer lean 4 cae he ee 85 
Week sco aie Bates ees Boe ee 86 
Winpleai's! eoe8e ee Oe alee dg eee ie ee 27 
Normality of skull or, bones .:. y3 2.) casa core ee a ee 101 
Nose; bridg@és gece Ueee es co wc ple oa eds 2 Oe he ee ee ee 86 
breadth 2. s'ocew gauges a87s veh ed det a Ra ee ed ee ee 74 
length Ao 2s ek Sara oa a ke OE ed ee 74 
measurements of, in the.living:; |) . 0-2. 2 sono cane ee 22 
on the. skull’. 7.65 25. oe ee ee 16;;172tL 
descriptive terms, cis «b's cases we a en ee ee 115 
SOP GUI oii Sein vie Mie ela aa Pe ew ALS te oe es acl ets ete dlc te 86 
O 
Obelicnt 29086 oy Po PE ras ee Wee dw we ace rele cls io oa ai ioe ace 106 
Observations, abbreviations of terms. 9.4. 14.7246 6-. 744 ah eee 82 
PT ACT OTF Fe i lin 5 sa o4e ice et ate eng Sete oe tet eee 82 
DHVRIOLORICAL oo r5 0) < Soe i ate Bx ate kate i ee ee 87 
Qecipital crests, descriptive terms... /ss28 020 eye es ce 115 
Occiput, descriptive terms so. ss ss nn> Gao aces 2) a ee 115 
Opbryon aici cere stale Saber Pw > cco iy Ree ee Re |e 106 
Onpisthion yo 354s SE Cee fate Fe ee 106 
Orbits, descriptive terms } ssi oi kk daaeue eon 4 oe ea aes y Oe 115 
Orbits; measurementa ‘ofc ies i Fie ae we wee ke ne te ee ee bW fica & 
Os calcis, measurements and observations. ............ce cee ee cece cee eeeeee 137 
Osteometry ii. r se ee a eet RA ee ee ee 117 
Fr 
Palate io 3 Banas eed Pe Oe Se ee Oe 17; 18 
measurements Of Fics VAs sis nce Gls bd pee he os aidan 4 plete eee 112 
descriptive terms Ac + sd ath. dug Sad 6 8 Vw ee weed aes ole ee ee cee 115 
sexual differences IN s..c 2 sao pci oy anos hs ee tne a eee 93 
Palpebral fissure, measurements Of). a5. os) csc us asc te ee ee ee 23 


Parentage, determination of ». 2.4.00 os des ost open ave ces ok ee ee 45 


INDEX 161 
SRO Ys 1th BOLDTOLIIDOUY ois «7s ee ee er wee Oe ee no Or ee ieee 46 
Patella, measurements and observations. ................00e0e0e REA ate y 136 
INLD ie el Grn oP yi. acc eon Sk EL ee oe enw Cn ale RET rT 135 
Pelvis, measurements and observations................0.cece cece ee eeces aks 
Sileamtirerrents OLie 5). 37.5 bose wesc. sana ge E aeterse +. ee ree eet heats 28 
BECEAD eTeNCes 301 sare 5 1 Gk oss age « eee ee Sa Lee on otek Mee 94 
RENE OAECE TUPSCTIDLLVG LOLiOs. 6 ..,'.:c., cle Gd et ocd heat eas 116 
CLS Sin ge eid aoe a Re Si vict ere Ded ance em Git cares 48; 49; 50 
MEH ODICILORACT VA GIDE 900 a ihe Chet are Gs eat Rae ea Pike te 87 
Seeoecinine of for OxAmMatiOn: v,0..<i27 «sa <gusdv te oom kn vs ow flv ie oes 41 
REPEATED POLOIMNOUIC: certciee een tk eae ao rere TEMA ig clin, Sta Soe dee we 52; 53 
MOET PTE a hse each y? kr eee tee de MEIN, 1g ee NS e Nap kb ta ane 54 
RNC CTMEIN YS INOCE OL Fee OL. oh bo SNe sie EAE oe le wes ie ees 129 
TAGYIErY, INdEX OF .24 53) edie err se nee et SPS LD ARE we - a 128 
OE fn PU CRES POTS TO ie a ee ogee a ar a ines sk (ERE Se A ae Sree 55 
MRO Aas Oe a eee he Be UN A a Re ney feasts wis%e ta pot kb ls 8 ps 106 
Cee TEM REET ree ee Sadie rare Pag Lk ea, MON ars uly Se chi a Doha ahd Gas 86 
ATES ST CLARION Fel g 1 pre ee Rein ie nie yk oe SR Ae 115 
en Mm ia a tos aie he a Gs my naam 1 ree, Cd oo NN 105 
RREe AEE Oey MM ta Mee Bahk Cn ER Weds MUL ayes, daha deine eleva 106 
RIERA IOt VCLELING meee ern. oo oe oS stk ss eerie eee arch ke Pane heel. 115 
ee Te PEO NS hoy lds gS bio a_e's ov due Oe Ree AAR oe 27 
tne eT Si 5) te pe Pleas 'v inne aie Bacce owe Alan's DWN ARMOR ® 87 
R 
ee UR A eee eae Nee dt ate Gs sy. ks ssoig ote we cian oe bog Pale aot aa oe 46 
era SCeerERRTIN eS LTT LO ee By 69 ESS oe ny hg Cn gig Oe abe Be ee Tee > 127 
Radius, measurements and observations. ............ cee cece cece teen cece 127 
AGDRESNAT oi ge plete UR go ES Se UR ger ea De Mee eA ene Bc are a ae 124 
TET ULM MICE MME ooo rere 505 4 iio c Ke Silse le Ev aces bash Sse Bee ww oie 82 
PALE CHE eee PTL ook eh Ss St ins. A Ota sw so ae 40 
EET SL 1 0Nt ePP ee Wa eC RUNES Wig CLs ral eee Ae See RN aisle se « SON 87 
etm Iaeiy LICTIC OL eer me ee See ste ee EN oes 8 a esate ts, Diam wo’ daerae 133 
S 
a Ree rt I sheng en alt SN AEE le dae dlatens Raters le bid oe 135 
Sacrum, measurements and observations. ............. ccc cee cece cece econ 134 
SrnrIECeUrewiOity Of AKU; CEACTIDELVG LELINS s/f 2c04 1 u iaets «we hace 'y oo het ee Me wale 115 
Scaphoid bone, measurements and observations................00c eee e ees 138 
OORT Ley CGY PTGES SI) al are Ee es a Oy ee Dee a |S a ag 130 
MCASUTEIMeENtS ANG ODSERVStIONS. <6. stile sles uc ces sce e mee 130 
SUC Olea Men ete a tn Gee ee he oily Wha shure py iota tate 125 
Deere ee TEASUTOINEN (aun artic) Cr et PRE We Recs. fate ta Wars ee Weal 103 
Re eETE RS CLO te er Nas ee ir phe Rice RL a a Ses eked 9 Ue ae 99 
Sex, determination of, from skulls and bones................ 0: ee eeceeeeees 91 
BREE GI OT CS MEASULOINOIILS Ofer rt a ed varia ae he KANG oe Gee nas akinsbtbias aioe bs 28 
ICTR UTOMAITN TOCTtIICAGION Olct, 7) ute emit amie eds «© och Dae Reem ale 6s 100 


ea UAE CL SOME Reale te oe a eae ees Uw cate aigs dh Borel a alae antec made Fas 59; 82 


162 INDEK 


Skull, deformations: Of iy £00 iis Se die oe ins 7 pa 110 
base of, sexual differences in 42.005 009% oo eed he oe 94 
measurements.Of 5 425 sous & Oe ORR Ee ee Se ee 89; 102 

base. ecu ed ap eed way Ou Re Rees ee he 111 

basio-alveolar diameter’. .0..:.. 5. 0.4 sabes sone 16 

bi-mastoideal breadth 3.0... 020) 20005 ob ee ee 16 

bi-zygomatic breadth...<:.... 29.5505 eee oe ee 16 

breadthe.i. 2220 ec ks os ee a ee 14; 107 

CAPACHLY 2) 5.54 bss Sie s Bila ea dee ee kee ee ee 19; 107 

CITCUMIErENCEs ey ae wee ee Bir eiicn ter hire Li fs 1Q;P1is 

Face. Vue us © ue dee eke BSG AM Oe oot eee een 111 

facial measurements. .% . ova oa 0 oe ae 16; 18 

frontal breadth 6554.24.05 eas Le 16 

Height SP sc Wckateak UR p Cee eae ee 15; 107 

length 5.5 has eae) oe eS 14; 107 

length, iniac. 9) o3)s‘nrs aati oda uatena me ee 14 

minimum frontal diameter..:. 2.5... - 9 e+ cee eee 107 

naso-basilar diameter oc 405. s¢ osc oe ee 16 

thickness 3.5.4 6 55 £58 ke figs tae to 107 

Vault, ance. Of Fi 434 <a 2 ben VOR ae ee 18; 19 

methods of. measurement {45.5 P42 Gia ces ols ies pe 106 
normality: Of oii, 4o5 714 Ss Fee Pes 2 a 101 
observations OD...) ci irev sth 2 ne apd aw 0 vee ai en ti ak 113 
blahks for..4) 3.5 4's2.5 6 We ate ae ean ea eee 114 

physiognomy Of 2355 ii scien 9 danas ee ce eee ee ee 93 
preparation OE oy irs ots pike 4 ee re ‘bets da Sa oo 91 
senile changes 1M 200 osc. ee tpt ae dee sind wo meats ei at 99 
SEXING Of Ss. arte News bs be cabal cutee eR eto ak Aen ee ae ROL 
sutures of, obliteration. fosk 6.5 wa? aa soe hee een ee 97; 98 
WEIPDING ..h eo oe ak oak adie oe bn ol gies eee a 58 

Spam . AEM rh eats PEP ie ea ie oe area a ei 28; 67 

Spine, anterior. superior Wiae |. isis. . da se pales oe es eed 28 
vertebral, observations ON. s..i ip cada G0 o4 soe cadicee vente ee 133 

Standards, for testing of instruments. /o03.. 2.2 ha. es bee 58 

for color of skin 2735)... 4s ee ee ae a ee ee 59 

for color of eyes and hair. .1))6:.c.0)s)deu cee ene 0a 59 

ptature 2) Kes ie sg ibn Fl Pee Fe ea 29 ae ee a i ee 66 
definition. of .. vscc. eos bo s4 Bo eas otee we ee ee ee 27 
estimation of, from parts of skeleton: 2.0. Jy. 2. ea ee 141 
reconstruction of, from long bones. ..4.. 05 1. 0.4ss0.4 ss te 31 

DEOPHANION «fo isse eae Goble ce @ Daly ek we ree ele ie 106 

Sternum, measurements and observations............00ccecceeceeeeeeueees 131 

strength, muscular: 5) 3h os £29 Se ae ee aaa 87 

Styloids; descriptive terms. 2. Sees ie ee es eee 116 

Subjects, grouping: Of; fs ors oie ey hw ek ot ace we te oleae 42 

BECUFING 64500 oe Ue tees ee tee ieee eee ee ie ee 42 
selection Of 0 \c) 130 ike ea iio ac Ge ne en hc hon et ee 42 


Subnasal points, .y9so0 97 baw ata wenaeaia nite ame 3 Oa Mantes oe 106 


INDEX 163 


SECA CEA Lette e nO coe races ok hey ae bw Ea yh idis alee oA are BOT 115 
SG MEN LR. Dig C's lo ar ae ea Gp ng ne al ans Ca RR Se 85; 92; 113 
NCE TE TE ULOUCIIER rrscar cia leks 6.2 ror ats 4.9 od Sat lea wo es eee en a 27 
SCRE ITO UGS UCEON ain cere 02 Go Sd ds Pala a ee UE ewe oe aaa aes 115 
CEEOL Sg 78 8 he ES 1 nae ic Make kd Oneal ve Aegina i) | Si ep a a Oe 98 
EMERITUS ATARIV Cri... 2 why He a AMIE CAL ee ee ee cet wes 20 
ik 
[TEES ce pact ats ee LS PINE a ie er eed 9 oe ET Pe 58 
MRETIRRIE ACTA UGSLCTIN a Gale Ae em My ee cate en eae oe Soin cis Bate eee 116 
CREM RM (bes ig apr pp ee ARE ID I Rk aaa Mecca ke SALE a ns ee 88 
CTREV LETS AE SER 0 AM oe Sean Aa AL a Ns te Mile. car a a IE OP 97 
PIAS LEI IMOL Gieee er tien tg ake fo scnc tCN er RSS ah en Te ed r OIE Gre ale Ms 143 
BUS UMIMIIETONCOS TTC eM ho oe, ee ee sey ee. Ck wg hia hans os Oe. 93 
SERS Ea) SO eo eR Ege RL go ls Or oe, 98 
TE TTT AP dR OA a ey.“ 87 
Mramiare ereets? Heserintive termes. =. 1 dune sce sss bh aes bended Maes 115 
Heoinero parietal region, descriptive term... 5... ccc cs ccc ee et nenevcceues 115 
meee VETTE IMICKS its a REIN yo 2, Palais hack ete Ai eis toe Us sw maleic muy es 129 
PAPE US AN ONRET VA MOUS 5 atest tea e sb eoe os oe nd Se ee 129 
TROT Th ga 2 ek: tay Rie bs SR Gy VA gO ge OE 122 
i Re PI IV ee, eR AE eer Syl Moiese 'y oa R ad aoe cb. d guciele o/eR nelgee BAChas 87 
Set Pe Gee eid MeN Po, Si nin alah sae ote ad Suave oy abate oo 28 
0 TUES ESSE SAD VA Eon Ba ee 76 
U 
Per ee NCOSTITOMEN A ANIL OUSSTVAtIONS..... sca c ecb wala e sire vb dlnile gd eere eas 127 
yc Ole ree eM nS A ha ere aie als gus See's bd ete Mos Co eee’ 124 
V 
er ree TGR ree eR oe Pea ss nied ve als dis Boo. e Via hele RGR ea a 94 
Ret eer ish. c i" Soo clei ain ow Side w dale ce tiene Awiein's 08 106 
W 
Ne Ee CPE TIRE Ney (Noe Ser ue Sy gis Waly erecaa' ly @ GERMS xlailu BRacd wel Argiees wal 88 
TRE gh Loc od el as tee aca sR Ge RM aT eR 28 
Z 
DE emEIOHGT RLV ECCOITNN oro Pa Aa GIs eetie ee co's co hea shale b acta din dg 8 115 


PES UAUCLIMNCTETICOS CE tv. cate ee ats oe ee ic A tid oc eee keer 93 


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